Index: Social

Modeling Research

Page Contents

Learned helplessness Developing self-efficacy and skills: The roles of social comparative information and goal setting Peer models and children's behavioral change Self-modeling and children's cognitive skill learning Peer models: Influence on children's self-efficacy and achievement Peer-Model Attributes and Children's Achievement Enhancing comprehension skill and self-efficacy with strategy

Learned helplessness

Brown, I. J., & Inouye, D. K. (1978). Learned helplessness through modeling: The role of perceived similarity in competence, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 900-908.

Brown and Inouye (1978) sought to test whether learned helplessness—one's expectations of inevitable failure due to lack of control over proposed circumstances—could be induced by vicarious modeling. The researchers set up live models of differing levels of perceived similarity of competence to the observer. Observers were either told that they were of similar competency or superior compency to the model. A third group did not received any feedback and a fourth (control) group did not observe a model. The hypothesis, that perceived model-observer similarity would be affected by performance of the model in either treatment condition, was confirmed over three posttreatment block trials. Using performance with anagrams as the performance task, participants in all groups witnessed a model demonstrate frustration and failure with the task. Observers in the superior competency group persisted longer than all other groups, volunteering to spend more time trying to solve the anagrams. Observers is the similar competency persisted less than all other groups. The implication of this study is not only that model similarity can adversely affect one's persistence and expectations of success, but also that social comparison among peers is an influential source of one's perceived self-efficacy, which was demonstrated by the greater success of those who expected to perform better than the model. JM

Developing self-efficacy and skills: The roles of social comparative information and goal setting

Schunk, D. H. (1983a). Developing children's self-efficacy and skills: The roles of social comparative information and goal setting, Contemporary Educational Psychology, 8((no #)), 76-86.

The effects of social comparison on self-efficacy and performance has also been tested in mathematics learning. Schunk (1983a) provided 40 low-achieving fourth and fifth graders with instruction in solving division problems. Four conditions were established in this experiment: 1) social comparative feedback on the number of problems previously solved peers, 2) a stated goal for solving a number of problems, 3) both treatments (multiple sources of efficacy information), and 4) a control group. Participants receiving multiple sources of efficacy information demonstrated greater skill as evidenced by the number of problems worked and solved correctly, as wells as higher judgements of self-efficacy. Further analysis also showed that social-comparative-only feedback was significant in demonstrating skill, and that goal-only condition was significantly related to percepts of mathematics efficacy. The combined results of this study imply that the efficacy-performance relationship is influenced by both goals and social comparison information. Self-efficacy models should therefore be developmental comparable to observer, and exhibit goals of successful performance. JM

Peer models and children's behavioral change

Schunk, Dale H. (1987). Peer models and children's behavioral change. Review of Educational Research, 57(2), 149-174.

Schunk (1987) reviews 29 studies on peer modeling. Criteria for inclusion in this review were that studies focused on peer modeling as a function of model attributes, such as age, gender, and model competence. Some studies examined mutliple attributes. Eighteen of those studies compared the effects of peer interactions with adult interactions on observing children. In half of those studies, peer models showed greater benefits that adult models. Most of the eighteen studies did not assess the effects of peer modeling on self-efficacy, but, according to the Schunk review, research to this point has indicated a benefit for peer models as opposed to dissimilar-age (adult) models in observations by children. More importantly, the effects of gender as a influential attribute in modeling is often dependent on the perceived gender appropriateness of the task, a matter of which, Schunk notes, was not examined by researchers in the studies reviewed.

Seven of the 29 studies concerned the relationship between model-observer gender. Only three of these gender studies found same-gender modeling to be of significant benefit, raising questions about whether gender modeling is most meaningful only in gender-appropriate tasks and not with regard to learning. Two studies found that peer model gender did not influence the learning of cognitive skills when the target skills are perceived by the observer to be appropropriate for either gender. Schunk calls for this study to be replicated with older children.

Twelve studies involved a model competence factor, either with high versus low competence (seven studies) or master versus coping models (five studies). Observers will more likely pattern subsequent behaviors on models that demonstrate competence or success. Models dissimilar in competence are shown to have powerful effects, but may also reduce observer self-efficacy for the task. Peer models on the other hand, are effective when perceived task familiarity, abilities to successfully accomplish a given task, or standards of behavior, are unknown to the observer. Model similarity in this case is a significant source of self-efficacy information. With regard to master versus coping modeling, two studies found that peer mastery and peer coping models were equally effective interventions compared to a teacher model or no model at all. In one follow-up study, however, it was found that the coping model led to high self-efficacy and learning. Children who are themselves coping with content (i,e. experiencing some difficulties), such as mathematics, identify more with a coping model versus a master model who readily deals successfully with unfamiliar content. Coping models should be employed with low-achievers.

Multiple peer models increases the likelihood that children will identify with at least one of the models.

Of special interest is this review is the focus on perceived similarity between model and observer. According to Schunk (1987, p. 149), "Similarity serves as an important source of information for gauging behavioral appropriateness, formulating outcome expectations, and assessing one's self-efficacy for learning and performance tasks."

Model attributes which are noted in this review include age, gender, competence of the model, and the background of the model. Effects of the number of models was also examined.

Schunk's synthesis of these studies is that attribute similarity can promote behavioral change in children, but not automatically. The conditions which do promote change, however, include: Schunk's conclusion is that peer models in the classroom can help facilitate changes in skill learning and enhance self-efficacy for various academic tasks. Modeling also serves as a means of social comparison.

The greatest impact of peer modeling appears where observers see themselves as similar in ability and other characteristics of the model.

Schunk cites Bandura (1969) as postulating that modeling can promote acquisition of new behavior patterns through observation, can positively or negatively affect behavioral inhibitions, and can cue or prompt performance of previously learned behaviors.

Modeled behavior that leads to rewarded (as opposed to punished) outcomes is more likely to be performed by the obeserver. Younger children process modeled behaviors better in terms of physical properties, whereas older children can process modeled behaviors symobolically. Bandura (1986) also postulates that modeling can both inform and motivate the observer based on outcome expectations.

Observers can be informed which behaviors are appropriate for them based on model attributes such as age and gender. Learners can also formulate beliefs about the outcomes of certain behaviors based on vicarious consequences of modeled actions; that is, the greater the model-observer similarity, the more likely observers will view the behavior as appropriate and will lead to comparable consequences. According to Schunk (1987), model similarity will be most influential in situations where observers are uninformed of the value of the relevant behaviors.

Schunk (1987) postulates that motivational effects on observers are significantly influenced by perceptions of self-efficacy. Seeing peers perform successfully in designated behaviors informs and motivates the observer that s/he too can succeed in the requisite act. Where learners have doubts or no basis for judging self-efficacy for specific tasks, modeling is both motivating and informative.

Self-modeling and children's cognitive skill learning

[Schunk, D. H., & Hanson, A. R. (1989). Self-modeling and children's cognitive skill learning, Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(2), 155-163.]

Schunk and Hanson (1989) conducted three experiments of peer modeling versus self-modeling on the cognitive skill learning of children nine to twelve years old. In experiment one, children classified by the school as low math-achieveers were assigned to one of three conditions: 1) observing multiple peer models of the same gender solve fraction problems (peer-modeling), 2) watching themselves solve problems on videotape (self-modeling), and 3) a videotape control group. Results showed that both treatment conditions were significantly more effective than the control condition. In experiment two, the children either watched themselves on videotape work easier or more difficult problems. In this case, both conditions were significantly more effective than control conditions. In experiment three, children either watched tapes of the process of learning to solve fractions versus their performance after they had learned to solve the problems. Significant results of the three experiments demonstrate that self- modeling is a significant method of modeling skill acquisition and in raising percepts of mathematics self- efficacy.

Peer models: Influence on children's self-efficacy and achievement

Schunk, D. H., & Hanson, A. R. (1985b). Peer models: Influence on children's self-efficacy and achievement, Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(3), 313-322.

Schunk and Hanson (1985) investigated whether they could positively influence the self-efficacy and mathematics achievement (with subtractions) of 72 eight-, nine-, or ten-year old children through peer modeling on videotape. The participants had previously experienced difficulty learning fractions. Schunk and Hanson also investigated whether mastery or coping behaviors were of significant benefit. Children were assigned to essentially one of four groups: 1) same-gender peer coping model, 2) same-gender peer mastery model, 3) teacher model, or 4) control condition. There were no significant differences on either the coping or mastery condition, however, same-gender peer modeling resulted in significantly higher mathematics self-efficacy and performance than the other conditions. Observers of the teacher model also reported significantly higher posttest self-efficacy and performed significantly higher than controls. While gender was included here as a peer attribute, there were no cross-gender model-observer comparisons. JM.

Peer-Model Attributes and Children's Achievement

Schunk, D. H., Hanson, A. R., & Cox, P. D. (1987). Peer-Model Attributes and Children's Achievement Behaviors, Journal of Educational Psychology, 79(1), 54-61.

Schunk, Hanson, & Cox (1987) conducted two experiments to see whether peer model gender attributes affected the mathematics (fractions) achievement of fourth, fifth, and sixth grade school children struggling with mathematics learning. In the first experiment, the researchers investigated whether model gender combined with either mastery or coping behaviors would affect the achievement behaviors of the observers. In the second experiment, they investigated whether mastery or coping models combined with either a single same-gender model or multiple (3) same-gender models promoted achievement behaviors. Participants watched videotaped sessions of female teachers working with the model(s). Results from the first experiment indicate that observing a coping model had a significant effect on children's self-efficacy and posttest performance, regardless of gender. Implications of these results are that children's self-efficacy and mathematics performance is significantly affected by modeling, and in particularly there are significant gains with coping and multiple models. It seems that modeling coping behavior is more effective for struggling students than modeling mastery behavior.. Multiple models, it is postulated, enables greater opportunity for the observer to identify with at least one of the models. This study, however, showed no effect on model-observer gender for elementary school children, which is consistent with research indicating that gender differences in mathematics do not emerge until junior high or middle school (Meece, et al, 1982). Implications of this study are that self-efficacy and mathematics performance of young children can be improved through modeling, in particular by using multiple, coping models. JM

Enhancing comprehension skill and self-efficacy with strategy

Schunk, D., H., & Rice, J. M. (1987). Enhancing comprehension skill and self-efficacy with strategy value information, Journal of Reading Behavior, 19(3), 285-302.

Schunk and Rice (1987) conducted a pair of experiments to test the effects of strategy value and use-feedback information on self-efficacy and reading comprehension of low-achieving, elementary school children. In experiment one, participants received one of four conditions: 1) specific strategy value information, 2) general strategy value information, 3) specific and general combined, or 4) no value information. In the second experiment, participants received one of three conditions: 1) strategy effectiveness feedback, 2) specific strategy value information, or 3) or combined effectiveness-specific value information. Strategy value was conveyed by pointing out how strategy use has improved other children's performances, a source of social comparison and self-efficacy information. Strategy effectiveness feedback was operationalized as verbal feedback from the trainer to participant on how strategy use improves performance. Results from experiment one showed that both self-efficacy and skill (pas indicated by performance) were significantly and positively altered in both the specific strategy value and general strategy value conditions; moreover, the specific-general strategy value group yielded an interaction across all other conditions. Experiment two tested how effectiveness feedback might build upon the first set of results. Results of this experiment showed that combined effectiveness-specific value information was more effective for improving self-efficacy and skill than either the strategy value only or strategy effectiveness feedback only conditions. One interpretation of these results is that multiple sources of information is more effective than a singular treatment for changing percepts of efficacy and corresponding performance.