Rural Schools (2001)

Page Contents

A      B      C      CC      D      E      F      G      H      HH      I      J      K      L      M      N      O      P      R      S      SS      T      U      V      W      Y      Z

A

Agnello-Linden, M. F. (Oct 1991). Alcohol Use and Abuse in a Rural School., 16pp. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the National Rural Education Association (Jackson, MS, October 10-14, 1991). Student responses were elicited in classroom discussions about alcohol use in their own rural community. Teachers and parents responded to questionnaires and interviews concerning various aspects of alcohol consumption as part of the local lifestyle. Students gave reasons for drinking such as ethnic and religious acceptance in the local community, parental permissiveness, and lack of parental supervision. Many students focused on the idea of social drinking as opposed to addictive drinking. They reported a general lack of police enforcement of underage drinking laws. Some students knew serious drinkers and described a family tendency toward alcoholism. Students usually obtained alcohol by asking people to buy it for them or by using fake identification. The 10 teachers interviewed agreed that students began drinking at early ages largely due to peer pressure. Alcohol was seen as readily accessible to teens who had too much idle time. Teachers expressed belief that alcohol affects student performance in school, self-concept, and discipline both at home and in school. There was general consensus that alcohol has profound effects on families, ranging from divorce, uncomfortable home environment, and alienation, to economic instability. Contrary to student and teacher reports, parents reported that they and their children did not drink at home or away from home. Most parents felt that the use of alcohol by youth did affect the family and community, and that the family affected an individual's decision to drink more than other circumstances did. The findings in this study correspond closely with the findings of a state survey of alcohol and drug use in Texas. (KS) ED339580

Allen, M. G., & And, O. (1994). Changing a Rural School to Better Meet the Needs of Its Young Adolescents. Paper presented at the Middle School Journal, 26, 1, 14,18-20 Sep 1994. With administrative support, guidance from Georgia Southern University's middle- grades program, and much hard work, teachers at a rural Georgia elementary school (K-7) have fashioned a developmentally appropriate middle-grades program. The results are greater middle-grade/high school articulation, an exploratory curriculum, differentiated student recognition, socialization activities, and guidance focused on preadolescent problems. (MLH) EJ490870

Alspaugh, J. (1995). Factors Determining Missouri Rural School Districts' Ability to Pay Teachers' Salaries: A Case for Reorganization. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 16, 2, 5-9 Win 199 1995. Small rural school districts in Missouri with low pupil/teacher ratios generate a small amount of revenue per teacher, pay low teacher salaries, and draw a large amount of salary supplement money per teacher. Suggests that districts reorganize into larger units, thereby increasing teacher pay and reducing the need for teacher salary supplement money. (LP) EJ500100

Alspaugh, J. W. (1999 Length: 20 Page(s); 1 Microfiche). School Size as a Factor in Financing Small Rural Schools., Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Montreal, Quebec, Canada, April 1999). This paper examines the effects of enrollment on the financing of small rural K-8 versus K-12 school districts in Missouri and compares the educational outcomes of K-8 and K-12 districts. The sample included 48 K-8 and 48 K-12 districts with K-8 enrollments ranging from 70 to 370 students. Findings indicate that it is more difficult to financially support small rural high schools than small rural elementary schools. Rural districts had limited capability to raise local revenue because of their low assessed valuation per pupil, which was associated with low assessment rates of agricultural real estate compared to residential and commercial property. District expenditures per pupil were below the state average and declined as enrollment increased. The student-teacher ratio was lower in K-12 districts than in K-8 districts; these lower ratios were associated with higher expenditures per pupil, higher operating levies, and lower teacher salaries. All teachers were underpaid relative to the state mean, but teachers in small K-12 districts were paid less than teachers in small K-8 districts. This implies that the conversion of small K-12 districts to K-8 districts may be an effective strategy to improve rural teacher salaries. Compared to state averages, small rural schools had better educational outcomes, suggesting that underfunding and low teacher salaries did not influence educational outcomes. Contains 8 tables, 9 figures, and 12 references. (Author/TD) ED430745

Ambrosie, F., Smith, D., & Joseph, M., Jr. (1999). Indicators of School District Conditions and Performance: What Rural Residents Want To Know about Their Schools. Rural Schools Program, 1998- 1999. A survey of rural New York residents examined community opinions about various traditional and nontraditional school performance criteria that could be used in a local "school report card." Completed surveys were received from 1,821 residents of 29 of the 245 small and rural school districts that participate in the New York Rural Schools Program. Less than 60 percent of respondents felt that it was easy to obtain information about their school or that they were well informed about the school. Bar graphs indicate public opinion about access to information on various aspects of student success, school environment, test results, staffing characteristics, program offerings, facilities information, student services, student characteristics, attendance and discipline, and school finance. Results were compared with those from a similar national survey. New York respondents were most interested in receiving information on student services and standardized test results, while the national sample was most interested in school environment and program offerings. Appendices contain survey letters, the survey questionnaire, and response rates on each survey item for each participating school district. (SV) ED437261

Anglin, J. M., & Piland, D. E. (1995). Reflections of a Rural School Student Teacher. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 17, 1, 27-31 Fall 1995. Analyzes the experiences of a student teacher in a small, rural elementary school in northeastern Ohio. Discusses student teaching and stages of professional developmental growth: uncertainty/nervousness, acceptance/confirmation, autonomy, and affirmation. Addresses implications related to supervision and teacher training programs, specifically in rural and small schools. (LP) EJ518743

Apostal, R., & Bilden, J. (1991). Educational and Occupational Aspirations of Rural High School Students. Paper presented at the Journal of Career Development, 18, 2, 153-60 Win 1991. A survey of 184 rural high school students found no differences in educational aspiration between males and females. Females expressed significantly higher occupational aspirations, in terms of jobs rated highly on the Total Socioeconomic Index 2. (SK) EJ437101

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Bainer, D. L. (1993). Problems of Rural Elementary School Teachers. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 14, 2, 1-3 Win 199 1993. In several studies, elementary school teachers identified problems involving affiliation, control, parent and home relations, student success, and time. Rural and urban elementary teachers reported similar concerns. However, rural teachers reported more problems with student success and control than suburban teachers, whereas suburban teachers focused more on time problems. (SV) EJ463075

Baker, K. N. (1990). Rural School-Based Enterprise: Promise and Practice in the Southeast., 51p. School-based enterprise (SBE) is a hands-on educational program in which students create and manage a business in their community. SBE programs address two general concerns about education todaylack of student motivation and the need for schools to teach students the skills to survive in and contribute to their communities. SBE makes the learning situation more relevant since it is based in the real world of work. Rural communities benefit as students create new jobs that contribute to economic revitalization. To start their own business, students must assess the community to determine what business would be viable, develop a business plan, find loans and financing, begin operations under adult supervision, and evaluate outcomes. Students often take a 2-year SBE core curriculum, which includes a course in small business management. REAL Enterprises, sister organizations in southeastern states that foster SBE programs, have found that projects run more smoothly if students start small, adequate teacher support is available, curriculum guidelines are established, ongoing adult supervision is provided, community support is secured, and supervisors and sponsors refrain from being overly helpful or from "rescuing" projects in trouble. This paper contains 14 references. Appendices summarize SBE program objectives, list "dos" and don'ts" for project success, and briefly describe 25 projects in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. (SV) ED330513

Baker, K. N., & Educational Resources Information Center (U.S.). (1990). Rural school-based enterprise promise and practice in the Southeast. [Research Triangle Park, NC] [Washington, DC]: Southeastern Educational Improvement Laboratory ; U.S. Dept. of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement Educational Resources Information Center. Ed 1.310/2:330513

Baker, M. (1997). The Lady Hastings' charity schools: accounting for eighteenth-century rural philanthropy. History of education, 26(3), 255.

Ballard, C. (1998). Violence Prevention in Georgia's Rural Public School Systems: Perceptions of School Superintendents. Paper presented at the Southern Rural Sociology, 14, 91-109 1998. Survey responses by superintendents in 81 of Georgia's 114 rural school districts covered violence prevention policies; use of searches, videocamera surveillance, metal detectors, security alarm systems, dress codes, and law enforcement officers on campus; incidence of removal of weapons and various forms of violence; student discipline programs; and the relationship of school safety to school size. (Contains 24 references.) (SV) EJ607027

Ballard, C. (1998). Violence Prevention in Georgia's Rural Public Schools: Perceptions of School Superintendents. Southern rural sociology, 14(1), 91.

Barker, B. O., & Dickson, M. W. (1996). Factors in Determining Rural School Readiness to Use Distance Learning. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 17, 3, 14-18 Spr 1996. Presents a series of questions to help rural school administrators assess their readiness to include distance learning as part of the instructional program. The questions address program need or purpose, school resources (human, facilities, and equipment), and selection of distance learning technology system. Lists brief explanations of common distance learning technologies in use. (TD) EJ526521

Barker, B. O., & Hall, R. F. (Oct 1993). A National Survey of Distance Education Use in Rural School Districts of 300 Students or Less., 16pp. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the National Rural Education Association (85th, Burlington, VT, October 14-17, 1993). Distance education technologies can help rural schools overcome the disadvantages of geographic isolation by expanding course offerings and learning opportunities and by connecting teachers with resource materials and training programs. Classroom-focused distance learning is distance insensitive and implies simultaneous instruction of several small groups of students at different sites. Network-focused distance learning, on the other hand, is both distance and time insensitive and connotes the use of information sources such as electronic mail, bulletin boards, and databases. A nationwide survey examined distance education practices at 130 rural K-12 public schools in 32 states. Each school comprised an entire school district and enrolled 300 students or less. Half of the schools received classroom-focused learning programs. Satellite-based delivery was the most commonly used technology, followed by cable television. Secondary students were clearly the target audience, with less than 10 percent of distance learning programs intended for elementary students. Staff development programs were used by many schools but typically did not exceed 15-20 hours per year. Principals indicated that the greatest programming needs were in foreign languages, mathematics, science, and vocational education. Half felt that parents and teachers strongly supported distance learning and that teachers would pursue graduate degree programs through distance learning if available. Includes the survey questionnaire. (SV) ED363491

Barker, B., & Hall, R. (1998). Planning for Technology Implementation in Rural Schools. The Rural educator, 19(3), 1.

Barnes, I. G. (1924). Rural school management. New York,: The Macmillan company. 379.7 379.173 379.7.b262

Barnes, N. D., & Harrod, S. E. (1993). Teen Pregnancy Prevention: A Rural Model Using School and Community Collaboration. Paper presented at the School Counselor, 41, 2, 137-40 Nov 1993. Focuses on efforts in Connecticut to combat teenage pregnancy. Describes a model program that emphasizes a collaborative venture between a state-funded community- based pregnancy prevention program and a regional vocational-technical high school located in a rural setting. Describes Northeast Connecticut Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program and the high school's Contemporary Life Issues Clinic. (NB) EJ473949

Barrow, R., VanZommeren, W., Young, C., & Holtman, P. (2001). School Counselor's and Principals' Perceptions of Violence: Guns, Gangs, and Drugs in Rural Schools. Rural Educator, 22(2), 1-7.

Bates, J. T. (1993). Portrait of a Successful Rural Alternative School. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 14, 3, 20-24 Spr 1993. A case study of a successful alternative school in South Carolina for rural at- risk students suggests that the school exhibits four characteristics of successful urban schools for at-risk students: small class size, caring staff, school as community, and program flexibility. Two other vital features are the leadership role of the principal and a focus on academic achievement. (LP) EJ467648

Beaulieu, L. J., & ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (2000). Rural schools and the Workforce Investment Act. [Charleston, WV: Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools Appalachia Educational Laboratory. Ed 1.331/2:edo-rc-00-9

Beckett, J. (1995). Environmental Education in a Rural 11-16 Comprehensive School. Paper presented at the Environmental Education, 50, 10-11 Aut 1995. Describes a four-phase strategy for integrating environmental education into the broad curriculum and community of a high school. Phase 1, Testing the Water, includes organizing displays and planting trees. Phase 2, Consolidating the Initiatives, involves curriculum development and conservation activism. Phase 3, Partial Integration and Acceptance, includes continued curriculum development and feeder-school connections. Phase 4 is Full Integration. (PVD) EJ546446

Behrens, R. L. (Oct 1992). The Rural Superintendent: The Missing Link in School Improvement., 10pp. Paper presented at the Annual Rural and Small Schools Conference (14th, Manhattan, KS, October 26-27, 1992). Educational research typically overlooks the significance of the superintendent in improvement efforts. The superintendent must not only be a good manager, but must also provide leadership, direction, vision, and purpose, and must establish an atmosphere conducive to learning. Because effective communication is vital, and in order to avoid confusion, the superintendent must also form an administrative team to maximize interaction and create commitment. One of the key elements of superintendent leadership is the search for effectiveness and excellence in the educational program. Effective leadership that produces effectiveness in schools can be accomplished only when the superintendent is fully organized and knowledgeable. The superintendent must evaluate the success or failure of improvement efforts, and be willing to abandon a project when necessary. Superintendents who wish to implement school reform are risk takers who view their job as requiring them to educate community and staff about what is needed and what they should want. This paper contains two figures mapping out superintendent activities and the superintendent's role in instituting reform efforts, and a list of 15 suggestions for superintendents. (KS) ED360111

Beloin, K. (1998). Strategies for Developing Inclusive Practices in Small, Rural Schools. Rural special education quarterly, 17(1), 12.

Beloin, K., & Peterson, M. (1 March 2000). For Richer or Poorer: building inclusive schools in poor urban and rural communities. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 47(1), 15-24(10). Throughout the world, educators are struggling to shift their delivery of services to children with disabilities from a segregated to inclusive approach. This shift creates substantial opportunities and challenges. This is particularly true in poor urban and rural schools. Although our experience is based in rural and urban schools in the United States, we know that poor rural and urban schools throughout the world face similar issues as inclusive education takes hold. This article describes a framework for building more effective and successful schools in poor rural and urban communities called "Whole Schooling." In addition, we identify the multiple barriers to inclusive schools, articulate the commonalties and differences between poor rural and urban schools, and describe specific strategies for utilising available resources to build more effective and successful rural and urban schools in which inclusive education is a central component.

Benham-Deal, T. (1995). Rural School APE: Are We Breaking the Law? Paper presented at the Rural Special Education Quarterly, 14, 1, 45-52 Win 1995. A study of adapted physical education (APE) practices in rural Wyoming revealed that many school districts did not offer APE programs; minimal, if any, specialization was required of APE teachers; larger districts were more likely to employ APE teachers; and there was considerable need for APE teacher training. Contains survey questionnaire and proposed state standards for APE certification. (LP) EJ500116

Berliner, B., Brown, P., Coe, D., & Educational Resources Information Center (U.S.). (1989). Rural schools in California a demographic, economic, and educational state profile. [San Francisco, Calif.] [Washington, DC]: Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development ; U.S. Dept. of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement Educational Resources Information Center. Ed 1.310/2:325273

Berliner, B., Brown, P., Coe, D., & Educational Resources Information Center (U.S.). (1989). Rural schools in Utah a demographic, economic, and educational state profile, 1989. [San Francisco, Calif.] [Washington, DC]: Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development ; U.S. Dept. of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement Educational Resources Information Center. Ed 1.310/2:324173

Betts, G. H. (1913). New ideals in rural schools. Boston, New York [etc.]: Houghton Mifflin Company. Lb1567.b3 379.7

Birch, I., & Lally, M. (1994). Rural Transient Children and School Achievement: An Australian Perspective. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 16, 1, 5-9 Fall 1994. Among 336 students aged 4-8 in 4 rural Australian schools, transient students scored marginally lower on ability tests than their residentially stable peers. However, teachers gave more weight to family background and support, as opposed to disruption of schooling, as influencing children's adjustment to change and school achievement. (LP) EJ495356

Blackmer, L. A. ([1993). Video as a Leadership Tool in a Rural School District. In a rural school district in northern Michigan, video is used as an administrative tool to communicate with board of education members, staff, and students. The great distances between schools makes board visits to areas of interest impractical. The district superintendent uses videos to take the board on tours of facilities so that they can get close-up views of maintenance and renovation problems, and to allow board members to view classroom activities at their convenience. Videos of maintenance problems have also been used to develop priorities for summer maintenance schedules; in one case, such videos led a manufacturer to replace a faulty roof. With regard to the district's team management approach, video provides firsthand observation of problems and issues, allowing the team to reach a common understanding prior to decision making. Video is an inservice tool for presenting information to staff at a fraction of the cost of a formal inservice program. Teacher applicants may send video resumes, complete with demonstrations of teaching effectiveness, or may have a long- distance interview via interactive video. From an instructional point of view, video provides students with another medium to express competency in a given subject area. A student anti-drug advocacy group has used video to inform classmates about problems associated with misuse of alcohol. Administrators have used "hidden" videos to confront students about smoking behavior. (SV) ED357922

Boethel, M. P. L. (1999). Service Learning: A Strategy for Rural School Improvement and Community Revitalization. (Benefits)[Squared]: The Exponential Results of Linking School Improvement and Community Development, Issue Number Two. The future of rural schools is inextricably linked to the future of their surrounding communities, and service learning is a powerful tool for capitalizing on those links. Service learning makes students active participants in service projects that respond to community needs while furthering the academic goals of students. Service learning projects are enormously varied and may address community needs related to health, poverty, social issues, or the environment. Although most projects are implemented in the middle or high school grades, elementary school students can benefit as well. For service learning to be effective, it must be integrated into the school's ongoing curriculum, and the teacher must identify the academic objectives to be addressed through the activity. The teacher's role must change to being an organizer or facilitator, and school schedules and rules must become more flexible to accommodate service learning activities. All school and community participants should agree beforehand on an activity's basic purpose. Service learning benefits students by providing authentic learning relevant to daily life and work, promoting social values and good citizenship, teaching work skills, and improving critical thinking and self-esteem. Various examples of rural service learning projects are described, and five information resources are profiled. (SV) ED445876

Bohrer, S. D. (1998). Politics of Building or Renovating Rural School Facilities., 15pp. Paper presented at the Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities (Kansas City, MO, May 1-2, 1998). While new school construction bond elections for rural school districts can be difficult to pass, success is possible. This paper presents one superintendent's effective campaign to build a $4.2 million elementary school within a rural community. It reveals the need to continually reinforce the message of committing to educational quality combined with productive communication with the school board and continuous efforts to gain community support. Successful school construction bond referendums are shown to have the best chance of success through intense voter registration efforts, continual canvassing, community meetings, and mass mailings to sway public opinion. It is argued that successful passage can also be aided with the creation of a long-range plan designed to convince voters that the need is legitimate.(Contains 12 references). (GR) ED425633 You may be able to order this document from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service.

Boone, M. (1998). Instructional Leadership Practices of Small, Rural School District Superintendents. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 19, 3, 15-19 Spr 1998. A survey of superintendents in 10 small, rural school districts in Texas showed that they gave priority to the following leadership behaviors: (1) focusing all stakeholders' attention on instruction; (2) involving others in instructional planning; (3) communicating high performance expectations; (4) maintaining visibility; (5) supporting principals; and (6) holding principals accountable. (SAS) EJ564457

Boraas, J., & Selke, G. A. (1926). Rural school administration and supervision. Boston, New York,: D. C. Heath. Lb2813.b6 379.7 379.7 b645

Braucht, S., & Weime, B. (1990). Establishing a Rural School Counseling Agenda: A Multiagency Needs-Assessment Model. Paper presented at the School Counselor, 37, 3, 179-83 Jan 1990. Developed creative approach to conduct needs assessment in rural schools that involved sending questionnaires to 49 key informants and 145 high school students. Key informants and students agreed that the 2 most serious issues were alcohol- related problems and family dysfunction (violence, divorce). Both groups indicated need for a teen center; differed in sources of assistance desired and used. (NB) EJ408256

Breckon, S. (1997). Leadership for Changing the Small Rural School: The Excitement of School Improvement., 16pp. Paper presented at the Annual Conference on Rural Education and Small Schools (19th, Manhattan, KS, October 27-28, 1997). This report describes the success of the LaHarpe (Illinois) Community Unit School District in raising student math scores on the Illinois Goal Assessment Program (IGAP). Low IGAP test results and faculty dissatisfaction with scores precipitated the school district to modify the content and delivery of math instruction based on student needs identified in the IGAP test. The traditional textbook approach in the elementary grades and practical math for less able high school students were replaced with "Math Their Way" methods in grade school and a modified 2-year algebra class in high school for those not taking college preparatory math. Junior high school math curricula were modified to include math electives of pre- algebra and algebra in the seventh and eighth grades. Further upgrading at the senior high level included adding calculus to the curriculum. Meetings were held to inform parents of the changes and solicit their cooperation. Over the 6 years of the program (1991-1997), test scores were raised 73 points and exceeded the state average by 31 points. (SAS) ED422139

Building School-to-Work Systems in Rural Areas. Resource Bulletin. (Dec 1996). This bulletin describes practitioner-identified strategies that can help build effective school-to-work systems in rural areas. The first section highlights these strategies for rural school-to-work partnerships: start early; identify educational and economic opportunities in the community; entrepreneurial experiences; community service-learning; computer/technology skills; and build networks among rural schools. Three examples of effective practices are presented: in Rothsay, Minnesota, a community's drive to save its independent school system and reopen its closed hardware store that led to the school board's purchase of the store and replace the high school's business simulation class with the opportunity to run a real business; REAL Enterprises in Oklahoma, a nonprofit organization formed to help rural schools create innovative entrepreneurial education programs; and training students at Rock Creek High School in St. George, Kansas, to install and troubleshoot the school district's computer systems. Contact and address information for the programs is provided. The bulletin then lists six organizations that can provide further information on the topic. Brief summaries describe the organizations' focus and activities. Five resource publications are listed. (YLB) ED407525

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C, d. B., a, Mary Rose, & And, O. (1991). Santo Domingo School: A Rural Schoolwide Project Success. Paper presented at the Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 13, 4 p363-68 Win 1991. The schoolwide project option of the 1988 Hawkins Stafford Amendments to Chapter 1 allowed a rural school serving a disadvantaged Native American population to restructure its compensatory and regular education services. Santo Domingo school (New Mexico) illustrates the ways modifications of federal law and policy benefit children. (SLD) EJ438595

Calam, J., Ed. (1991). Alex Lord's British Columbia: Recollections of a Rural School Inspector, 1915-36. The Pioneers of British Columbia., 204p. Alex Lord, a pioneer inspector of rural British Columbia (Canada) schools, shares in these recollections of his experiences in a province barely out of the stagecoach era. Traveling through vast northern territory, using unreliable transportation, and enduring climate extremes, Lord became familiar with the aspirations of remote communities and their faith in the humanizing effects of tiny "assisted" schools. En route, he performed in resolute yet imaginative fashion the supervisory functions of a top government educator, developing an educational philosophy of his own based on an understanding of the provincial geography, a reverence for citizenship, and a work ethic tuned to challenge and accomplishment. His words portray many of the unusual characters who inhabited this last frontier, along with their hopes, fears, joys, sorrows, and eccentricities. More particularly, Lord's memoirs point out the historical significance of the one-room rural school and its role as an indispensable instrument of community cohesion. The introduction by John Calam includes a biography of Alex Lord, a brief description of the British Columbia he knew, and a sketch of its public education system. Contains references in chapter notes, photographs, maps, and an index. (TD) ED392577

Caldarella, P., & And, O. (1996). The Spread of Youth Gangs into Rural Areas: A Survey of School Counselors. Paper presented at the Rural Special Education Quarterly, 15, 4, 18-27 Fall 1996. A survey of 41 rural high school counselors from eight western states indicates an emerging problem with crime and youth gangs in rural schools and communities. In addition, school counselors do not feel adequately trained or equipped to deal with gang-related activity in their schools. Includes survey questionnaire. (LP) EJ539948

Capper, C. A. (1993). Rural Community Influences on Effective School Practices. Paper presented at the Journal of Educational Administration, 31, 3, 20-38 1993. Explores how rural communities influence school-level processes facilitating effective instruction. Rural community influences on structural aspects of schools (resources, instructional time, curricular emphasis, grouping practices, extra support, and parent involvement) vary, depending on the community's values. Rural communities can both constrain and support commitment to student learning, primacy of teaching, and collaborative teamwork. (Contains 66 references.) (MLH) EJ472550

Carlson, R. V. (1990). A Rural School/Community: A Case Study of a Dramatic Turnaround and Its Implications for School Improvement. Paper presented at the Research in Rural Education, 7, 1, 23-33 Fall 1990. Reversing two decades of school-community turmoil, Valley Viewa small, rural community in northeastern Vermontapproved a bond issue for school construction. This case study uses organizational and systems theory to examine structural, political, symbolic, and human resource influences on changing community attitudes. Contains 19 references. (SV) EJ418889

Carlson, R. V. (1992). A Study of a Rural School/Community Development Effort or What Happens between the Lip and the Cup. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 14, 1, 5-10 Fall 1992. Uses a case study approach to determine how a rural supervisory union school district and its communities attempted to improve the union's economic feasibility and address important school needs. Efforts appear to have resulted in greater teacher involvement, commitment, and ownership of subsequent changes and promotion of teachers to administrative positions. (KS) EJ458168

Case, K. I. (14 Oct 1993). Rural School Reform: Teacher Decision Making and Cognitive Constraints., 20pp. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the National Rural Education Association (85th, Burlington, VT, October 14, 1993). Interviews with 34 teachers at a rural high school in northeastern Connecticut examined cognitive constraints affecting teacher involvement in participative decision making. The principal recently restructured the school in an attempt to ensure teacher decision making. Data collection consisted of a standardized open- ended interview conducted at the school. Teachers perceived that the majority of their decisions were made under cognitive constraints and indicated a lack of adequate information and time. Teachers attributed time constraints to a lack of administrative support. Time constraints caused teachers to become uncertain in their decision making, and the quick changes in the structure of school governance caused confusion for teachers. A teacher coordinator of the new structure believed that the school governance change had occurred too quickly and that faculty felt they were forced to make decisions before they were ready. Other teachers reported operating under "pseudo decision-making," whereby the appearance of decision-making power is provided, but the decision is actually made by the administrator in charge. These results do not support previous research that characterized rural schools as the epitome of school-based decision making. (KS) ED363468

Challman, S. A. (1917). The rural school plant for rural teachers and school boards, normal schools, teachers training classes, rural extension bureaus. Milwaukee, Wis.,: The Bruce publishing company. Lb3209.c4 379.7 379.7 c35

Chalmers, L. (1993). Successful Inclusion in Rural School Settings: How One Rural Minnesota School District Made It Work. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 14, 3, 31-32 Spr 1993. Describes guidelines that a rural Minnesota school district followed to implement inclusion of handicapped students in the regular classroom: administrative support, small-group inservice, floating substitute teachers, ongoing follow-up, ongoing communication, documentation of Individualized Education Plans (IEP), and team teaching. (LP) EJ467650

Chance, E. W., & And, O. ([Oct 1991). Creating an Effective Rural School District: A Case Study., 44pp. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the National Rural Education Association (Jackson, MS, October 10-15, 1991). Research has found that effective schools can be distinguished from less successful counterparts by five characteristics. These are: strong instructional leadership; high expectations for all students to learn; an orderly and positive learning environment; a carefully developed instructional focus; and regular measurement of student learning. Based on these findings, the administrators and teachers of the Little Axe School District, Oklahoma, embarked on an extensive school-improvement program. In 1988-89, they established committees to address the five correlates of effective schools; attended staff development sessions to study the correlates; and developed objectives. During the following 2 school years, staff continued their training; developed an after-school alternative program for suspended students; and implemented a curriculum mapping project. District administrators asked researchers from the University of Oklahoma to examine the impact of the building principal on the effective schools process underway at each of the schools. "Shadowers" followed each principal and the superintendent for an entire day and were privy to all of the day's happenings, making notes of all dialogue with faculty and students (numerous direct quotations are included in the paper). The workload of administrators seemed to be overwhelming. Administrators cited lack of time and maintaining good communication with staff and parents as their chief concerns. Evaluation of the school-improvement program also included interviews with selected staff and students and the administration of the Leadership Practices Inventory to administrators and selected staff. (SV) ED340532

Chance, E. W., & Capps, J. L. ([Oct 1990). Administrator Stability in Rural Schools: The School Board Factor., 24pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Rural Education Association (82nd, Colorado Springs, CO, October 5-8, 1990). This study examines the excessive turnover rate of school superintendents in rural school districts in Oklahoma from the school board perspective. Researchers identified 41 schools that had three or more superintendents in the last 5 years, and had 600 or less students. Telephone interviews of 25 school board presidents focused on personal and board related demographics, community special interest groups, critical problems between the board and superintendent, reasons for the superintendent turnover, and any established criteria for the hiring of new superintendents. The following areas were identified as critical problems that existed between the board and any of the previous superintendents: (1) finance, primarily poor management of funds; (2) integrity, from theft to lying to the board; (3) poor communication skills; and (4) immorality, such as extramarital affairs. Forty-three percent of the 63 superintendents who left the district were either terminated or forced to resign. Twenty-three percent resigned to accept a position in a larger district or one which paid more. The majority of school boards alone interviewed the superintendents, and did not question the applicant's former district or community. Often, inappropriate interview questions were asked, and the "good ol' boy" system used. To increase needed stability in school districts, boards must be more investigative in the hiring process, and state agencies must adopt a proactive attitude to address the issue of ineffective administrators. (KS) ED331681

Chance, E. W., & Neuhauser, M. (1991). Preparing Women and Minorities as Rural School Administrators. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 12, 2, 1-5 Win 199 1991. A nontraditional Master's degree program in educational administration at South Dakota State University was designed to encourage participation by women and minorities. Twenty-four women completed the two-year program, which featured weekend classes, reduced tuition, and special courses focusing on instructional leadership, administrative vision, and networking strategies. (SV) EJ427609

Chance, E., & Cummins, C. (1998). School/Community Survival: Successful Strategies Used in Rural School District Consolidations. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 20, 2, 1-7 Win 1998. Superintendents of nine Oklahoma school districts that voluntarily consolidated were interviewed to identify successful strategies related to teachers, parents and community, students, support staff, administrators, and board members, and to identify unsuccessful strategies. Assuring that students would benefit, addressing job security, and communicating openly were mentioned most often. Contains 25 references. (TD) EJ582500

Chapman, M. (1995). The Aleknagik Project: Cooperative Restructuring of a Rural School Based on a Culturally Sensitive, Integrated Curriculum, an Understanding of Myers-Brigg Learning Styles, and Teacher and Community Empowerment. Paper presented at the ERS Spectrum, 13, 4, 7-15 Fall 1995. A former principal describes how a "problem" rural Alaskan school became a model of positive self-esteem, community involvement, student achievement, and enthusiasm for learning. She discusses problems (cultural dissonance and fragmented curricula), the project's philosophical basis in cultural sensitivity and personality-type theory, the cooperative restructuring process, and project outcomes. (MLH) EJ517758

Cisse, B., Aaby, P., & Whittle, H. (1999). Role of Schools in the Transmission of Measles in Rural Senegal: Implications for Measles Control in Developing Countries. American journal of epidemiology, 149(4), 295.

Clark, G., & Zimmerman, E. (2000). Greater Understanding of the Local Community: A Community-based Art Education program for Rural Schools. Art Education, 53(2), 33.

Clarke, D. C. (7 Mar 1992). Easing the High School to College Transition for Rural Learning Disabled and Other At-Risk College Students: A Three Credit Course Can Make a Difference., 9pp. Paper presented at the International Conference of the Learning Disabilities Association (Atlanta, GA, March 4-7, 1992). This paper describes a course at West Virginia University that teaches academic self-management to beginning university students who have learning disabilities or are otherwise at risk for academic failure. The course uses an integrated approach that emphasizes the development of college study skills, self-management skills, and academic problem-solving skills. The course also acquaints students with support services offered by the university. Titled "Psychology of Academic Self-Management," the three-credit course is taught by a course coordinator or graduate assistants and is staffed by two undergraduate teaching assistants who successfully completed the course the previous semester. For recruitment purposes, the course coordinator sends letters describing the course to eligible incoming freshmen prior to summer orientation sessions, and maintains contacts with academic advisors for referral of potential students. Two case studies are presented of students who attribute their success to the program. (JDD) ED345442

Clyde, M. (1991). Catering for the Needs of Pre-School Age Children in Rural Areas: A Case Study. Paper presented at the Education in Rural Australia, 1, 1, 13-20 1991. Surveyed parents of young children in a rural area of Australia to determine why some children were not sent to kindergarten and to enumerate service delivery preferences of parents with children in kindergarten. Also presented are results of a survey of kindergarten teachers' attitudes toward changes in delivery of kindergarten services. (KS) EJ427635

Cockrell, K. (14 Oct 1991). A Rural Professional Development School: University-School Collaboration in a Multicultural Setting., 14pp. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the National Rural Education Association (Jackson, MS, October 10-14, 1991). The Oklahoma State University Educational Alliance was formed in 1990 to address multicultural issues in a rural setting and provide a multicultural experience for students. This alliance consisted of Oklahoma State University (OSU) College of Education, Frontier Public Schools, and the Otoe-Missouria Tribe. The OSU College of Education is comprised of six academic units having the primary mission of preparing educational personnel. The Frontier Public School District is a consolidated rural school site providing K-12 schooling for approximately 425 students. Fifty-two percent of the student population is of Native American descent; 48 percent is Anglo-American. The Otoe-Missouria Tribe is a federally recognized tribal government with 1,564 members. The combined resources of the alliance created opportunities for developing and implementing innovative programs. These programs' goals included: (1) professional development in a multicultural environment; (2) enhancing knowledge through field site and on- campus work; (3) fostering cooperation between alliance members; (4) enhancing the learning environment of all Frontier Public School students; and (5) increasing knowledge of college faculty of the Native culture and people. In 1990- 91, the Alliance (1) developed a working relationship between the elementary school principal and the tribal child welfare unit; (2) provided OSU students with experience of culturally diverse education by conducting field trips; (3) involved members of the three components of the Alliance in active collaboration; and (4) provided Frontier School teachers an opportunity for graduate study. The OSU College of Education has begun planning additional alliances involving other rural Oklahoma school districts. (LP) ED342519

Coll, K. M., & Ring, E. (1994). A Rural School District-Community Partnership: Collaboration in Alcohol and Drug Prevention Planning. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 15, 3, 1-4 Spr 1994. A rural school-community council identified local risk factors for youth substance abuse, selected prevention strategies related to the risks, and developed objectives and evaluation processes. Community members were presented with the plan and formed a committee to begin implementation. (LP) EJ486972

Collins, R. P. (1996). Rural Education: Clarkton School of Discovery. Paper presented at the Clearing House, 69, 3, 132 Jan-Feb 1996. Describes the Clarkton School of Discovery in Clarkton, North Carolina, a gifted- and-talented magnet middle school that is open to all students in the school district. (SR) EJ529116

Collins, T. (August 1999). Crucial Policy Links: Rural School Reform, Community Development, and Citizen Empowerment., Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Rural Sociological Society (Chicago, IL, August 4-8, 1999). This paper lays out a rationale for building local rural development policies that focus on potential strengths of school-community relationships, while empowering local citizens. Rural communities and their schools are caught up in trends that complicate policy at all levels. These trends include changes related to national and global economic restructuring, devolution of government, and systemic education reform based on higher standards and accountability. The rural school-community relationship is crucial to community sustainability. In rural communities buffeted by changes that have depleted capital, tax bases, institutional resources, and population, schools may be one of the few remaining vital institutional forces. Despite the perils and problems, the confluence of economic restructuring, government devolution, and systemic school reform offers schools and communities an opportunity to form new relationships based on their mutual dependency, the promise of improved quality of life, democratic ideals and practices, and the urgency of community survival. Rural school officials and community leaders must cooperate in formulating holistic community-development policies that address local needs, include diverse citizen participation, and build community capacity to enhance democratic processes. School governance is already changing, as efforts to increase accountability demand meaningful community engagement. In their role as a local institution, schools must also become community centers that engage the whole community in their operating decisions, services, and programs. Conversely, rural communities must use schools as democratizing institutions that train adaptable citizens and workers to sustain community life in an uncertain future. (Contains 41 references.) (SV) ED437263

Collins, T., & Educational Resources Information Center (U.S.). (1999). Crucial policy links rural school reform, community development, and citizen empowerment: paper presented at the annual meeting of Rural Sociological Society, Chicago, Il, August 4-8, 1999. [Washington, DC]: U.S. Dept. of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement Educational Resources Information Center. Ed 1.310/2:437263

Colwell, B., & And, O. (1995). Opinions of Rural Texas Parents Concerning Elementary School Health Education. Paper presented at the Journal of School Health, 65, 1, 9-13 Jan 1995. Parents of elementary students in rural Texas completed surveys about their attitudes toward and knowledge of comprehensive school health education. Results indicated parents widely supported health education, with alcohol, drugs, nutrition, and first aid being the topics they considered most important. (Author/SM) EJ504239

Compton, B. B., & Hughes, J. (Mar 1990). Reducing Rural School Dropout through the Adolescents-in-Need Model., 10pp. Paper presented at the Rural Education Symposium of the American Council on Rural Special Education and the National Rural and Small Schools Consortium (Tucson, AZ, March 18-22, 1990). Based in rural northern Orange County (North Carolina), the Adolescents-in-Need Project began in 1981 as a joint effort of the school district, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, and community agencies. Project goals focused on preventing untimely events in the lives of teenagers, and included helping adolescents to delay first or repeat pregnancy, complete their education, develop lifestyle and parenting skills, and secure safe nurturing living arrangements. Referrals were made on the basis of expressed concern and did not require explicit definition. From 1981 to 1988, the county pregnancy rate for 15- to 19-year-olds dropped from 6.2% to 4.2%, while the school dropout rate improved from 10.5% to 6.7%. Over 60% of the high-risk adolescents served by the project remained in school; among dropouts, 5% obtained a GED and 57% found productive employment. Major program strategies aimed at: (1) improving communication and negotiating conflicts between teens and their parents; (2) developing a close working relationship with the school system; (3) identifying community services and improving access to services for adolescents; (4) involving male partners of pregnant teens and teen mothers; (5) improving day care services for teen mothers attending school; (6) assisting teens to find employment; (7) assisting with transportation; (8) coordinating with special programs available to adolescents; and (9) providing one-on-one time and support to teen mothers and developing peer support groups. (SV) ED337324

Coulon, S. C., & Reif, G. (1994). Elementary Physical Education: A Rural School District's Perspective. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 15, 3, 13-17 Spr 1994. Teachers, students, and parents surveyed in a rural school district regarded elementary physical education programs as important but inadequate. A university- school collaboration assisted classroom teachers in redesigning the physical education curriculum and included consultation services in the form of school visitations and follow-up inservice training. (LP) EJ486975

Cross, J. (2001). Rural Schools, Long Overlooked, Gain Elusive Victory. School Administrator, 58(3), 63-65.

Cuban, L. (1995). "The Life and Death of a Rural American High School: Farewell Little Kanawha," by Alan DeYoung. Book Review. Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 11, 2, 121-24 Fall 1995. Reviews a book about the history of a small rural school in Braxton County, West Virginia. Argues that consolidation and eventual closure of this school resulted from political, economic, social, and cultural forces that failed to recognize the important relationship between the school and the community. Reflects on the reviewer's own previous assumptions about consolidation benefits. (LP) EJ520527

Cummins, C., Chance, E. W., & Steinhoff, C. (1997). A Model for Rural School Consolidation: Making Sense of the Inevitable Result of School Reform., 30pp. In: The Many Faces of Rural Education. Proceedings of the Annual NREA Convention (89th, Tucson, AZ, September 24-27, 1997); see RC 021 239. Passage in 1989 of Oklahoma's education reform bill, H.B. 1017, provided encouragement and financial rewards for use of consolidation as a reform strategy, but this approach is often met with anxiety and hostility from stakeholders. In an effort to identify strategies that facilitate consolidation, semistructured interviews were conducted with the superintendents of 16 rural Oklahoma school districts that had participated in 8 voluntary consolidations. The superintendents discussed strategies used to enhance the consolidation process for teachers, parents and community, students, support staff, administrators, and board members, as well as strategies that proved unproductive. Thirteen successful strategies were identified. Addressing the number one staff issuejob securityall eight consolidated districts guaranteed the positions of administrators and support staff, while five new districts retained their entire teaching staff. Keeping staff informed and providing employee displacement compensation were other staff strategies. Maintaining all school sites greatly enhanced the consolidation process for students and community members; this was accomplished in six consolidations. Other student and community strategies included community meetings, media releases, focus on the student benefits of consolidation, and joint student-body activities. Administrative issues were addressed through preconsolidation administrative appointments, joint board meetings, extensive planning, and state assistance. Contains 25 references and 16 data tables. (SV) ED413148

Curran, J. A. (1996). Using the Internet To Improve the Resources of a Rural High School Media Center., 92pp. Ed.D. Practicum, Nova University. This project was designed to bring the resources of the Internet to a rural high school through the school's media center and to provide training to enough of the faculty and students to facilitate its use. A flexible program for five academic departments requiring only one meeting of each department and utilizing written worksheets geared to four areas of the Internet, Gopher, Telnet, FTP, and the World Wide Web, was designed. Using the SouthEastern Resources Vision for Education as an Internet provider, 18 teachers, an aide and selected students were guided through a 25-week program of Internet basics through self- and individual-guided instruction. A report to the whole faculty and a web page for the school rounded out the project. As a result of the project, resources of the media center were significantly increased and students and teachers were instructed on Internet use. With 58 students responding to a posttest survey on online research, only 24 reported research success more than half the time. Twenty-one of 30 teachers reported success more than half the time. Another result of the project was the addition to the media center of three multimedia encyclopedias and the accessibility of Britannica Online to users. An 18-page report describing the instructional program and giving an extensive list of useful Internet sites was distributed to the entire faculty. In addition, a web homepage was launched, serving as a menu to connect all the most useful areas of the Internet. The survey, Internet search checklist, sample activity sheets, and report to faculty are appended. (Contains 50 references.) (AEF) ED411782

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Danzig, A. (1996). Rural Dilemmas in School-to-Work Transition: Low Skill Jobs, High Social Demands. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 17, 3, 26-34 Spr 1996. Thirty-three employers in rural Arizona were interviewed concerning employer expectations, workplace opportunities, authority patterns, rewards, and social interaction at work regarding entry level workers directly out of high school. Available work was low skill with few rewards, yet demanded strong social skills and work ethic. Discusses implications for young workers and schools implementing the Schools-to-Work Act. (TD) EJ526523

Dayton, J. (1998). An Examination of Judicial Treatment of Rural Schools in Public School Funding Equity Litigation. Journal of education finance, 24(2), 179.

Demchak, M. (1993). Training Administrators of Rural School Districts to Improve Programs for Students with Severe Disabilities. Paper presented at the Rural Special Education Quarterly, 12, 3, 18-22 1993. The pyramid model of staff training provides rural school districts with a practical low-cost solution to the problem of underqualified teachers of students with severe disabilities. In this model, special-education administrators or supervisors receive training in program improvement, train teachers in their districts, and provide ongoing supervision and feedback in the classroom. (SV) EJ473337

Devlin-Scherer, R. (1994). Peer Leadership in a Rural School Setting. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 15, 3, 22-24 Spr 1994. Describes a peer leadership program implemented at a small rural Vermont school that grouped junior high students identified as having social skill problems with model high school students for activities such as field trips, challenge games, and community service projects. As a result, referrals for disciplinary action decreased among junior high students. (LP) EJ486977

Devlin-Scherer, R. (1997). Peer Leadership in a Rural School Setting., 15p. This paper describes the training of a high school assistance team designed to guide younger students. The program, which was directed at students in grades 7 and 8, lasted for 1 year and involved students in community service and challenge activities. The setting was a small rural school in Vermont, with nearly 400 students in grades 7-12. Teachers had become concerned that the needs of all students were not being addressed at the school, arising in part from a lack of connectedness. It was suggested that high school students could serve as role models to the younger students and external funding was secured to initiate a training program for these student mentors. Following a careful selection process, 20 high school students, 4 teachers, and a guidance counselor met with trainers in two full days of training sessions. Some of the activities, which were intended to help the younger students, included field trips with peer leaders, challenge games, and a service project designed to assist the elderly. Results indicate that peer leaders experienced success in the leadership roles given them. The 30 at-risk students also improved, with improved attention, attendance, and grades. (RJM) ED412484

Dewees, S. P. L. (2000). Participation of Rural Schools in Comprehensive School Reform Demonstraton Program: What Do We Know? The federal Comprehensive School Reform Demonstration (CSRD) program provides incentives for high-poverty schools to pursue reform. In fiscal years 1998-99, $120 million, or 83 percent of total CSRD funds, was made available to states to target Title I schools serving disadvantaged students. Of the 1,748 schools participating in CSRD, over 85 percent received Title I funds and almost two thirds were Title I Schoolwide Program grantees. It has been suggested that rural school participation in CSRD may be hampered by such barriers as geographic isolation and lack of staff. This paper examines the distribution of CSRD funds across the rural-urban continuum, both overall and for high-poverty schools (schools with 50% or more of their students participating in the free and reduced lunch program). Data were drawn from a database on school participation in CSRD, and the rural-urban location of schools was based on the Johnson Locale Codes used by the U.S. Department of Education. The data indicate that: (1) rural high-poverty schools were funded by CSRD at a slightly lower rate than total rural schools; (2) students in rural high-poverty schools were served at a slightly higher rate than students in total rural schools; (3) the largest CSRD grants went to urban schools due to their larger size; and (4) compared to urban schools, rural schools funded by CSRD had fewer students but more money per student to implement reform. Appendices outline issues related to rural school participation in CSRD and define the Johnson Codes. (SV) ED445875

Dewees, S., & Earthman, G. (2000). Trends and Issues Affecting School Facilities in Rural America: Challenges and Opportunities for Action., Chapter 1 in: Improving Rural School Facilities: Design, Construction, Finance, and Public Support; see RC 022 640. Page Length: 21. School facilities needs in rural America and the means to meet them are affected by rural population trends, building inadequacies and obsolescence, and financial problems. Overall, America's schools have seen increased public school enrollments since the mid-1980s, but rural enrollments have declined, particularly in communities with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants. However, rural population trends vary greatly across and within states. Long-term underinvestment in school facilities has left a legacy of crumbling school buildings in many communities. In 1996, 52 percent of rural schools had at least one inadequate building feature, and 54 percent had at least one unsatisfactory environmental factor. In addition, older rural schools had great needs to improve energy efficiency, upgrade the building infrastructure that supports new technology systems, provide flexible spaces to accommodate new teaching formats and expanded school services, and meet access requirements for individuals with disabilities. Because rural districts have lower enrollments, inadequate tax bases, and regulatory limits to their debt, they often cannot generate the revenues required to build school facilities. In addition, many have higher poverty levels and less ability to support local bond initiatives. Practical strategies for funding rural schools include state capital funding, state building authorities, interest-free or tax-credit bonds, converting vacant buildings, and increasing support through lobbying and public awareness campaigns. (Contains 30 references.) (SV) ED445856

Dewees, S., Ed., & Hammer, P. C., Ed. (2000). Improving Rural School Facilities: Design, Construction, Finance, and Public Support., For individual chapters, see RC 022 641-647. Page Length: 128. While the condition of rural school facilities varies across the country, most rural school districts face similar issues as they consider new facility construction, renovations, or additions. These issues are how to gain public support for funding, how to make the best use of local resources, how to design buildings that meet a variety of community needs, and how to design facilities that optimize instruction and use of technology. This book contains seven edited papers presented at the National Working Conference on Improving Rural School Facilities, held in Kansas City (Missouri) in March 1998. The papers are: (1) "Trends and Issues Affecting School Facilities in Rural America: Challenges and Opportunities for Action" (Sarah Dewees, Glen Earthman); (2) "Financing Facilities in Rural School Districts: Variations among the States and the Case of Arkansas" (Mary F. Hughes); (3) "Preserving Heritage While Restoring and Improving Facilities: A Rural Community's Experience" (Burton Edward Dickerson); (4) "Creating Technology Infrastructures in a Rural School District: A Partnership Approach" (Dennis Jensen); (5) "Gaining Rural Community Support for a Bond Issue: A Superintendent's Experience" (Stephen Dean Bohrer); (6) "Maintaining Respect for the Past and Flexibility for the Future: Additions and Renovations as an Integrated Sequence" (Dan Swedberg); and (7) "Managing the Rural School Facility Construction Process" (Angelo Passarelli, Wade Goehring, Anne Harley). (Contains references in each chapter.) (SV) ED445855

DeYoung, A. J. (1998). Parent Participation, School Accountability and Rural Education: The Impact of KERA on School Consolidation in Kentucky., 31pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Diego, CA, April 14-17, 1998). This paper discusses the Kentucky Education Reform Act (KERA) and its impact on school facilities planning and community involvement in related decision making. Since 1900, the pattern of rural school reform, nationally and in Kentucky, has been one of increased state and federal control, with cost effectiveness and equity the primary criteria in setting school budgets. As a result, school districts in Kentucky declined from over 1,000 to 176. School buildings, despite increasing enrollment, declined from over 8,500 to fewer than 1,400. Changes in the way school facilities are improved or closed have come about indirectly from KERA. KERA was enacted in 1990 in response to a class action fiscal equity suit, and replaced all previous educational legislation. In addition to fiscal and curricular reforms, KERA mandated governance reforms that include site-based decision making, state-level administrative reorganization, and revision of the state school facilities manual (the "Grey Book"). The Grey Book had frequently forced consolidation by focusing almost exclusively on economies of scale criteria and forbidding state aid for facilities construction or repairs when those criteria were not met in every building in a school district. The obvious contradictions between the Grey Book and KERA's site- based decision making led to new facilities criteria. However, there remains a cost to those districts retaining very small schools. Case studies of proposed school closings and consolidation in Henderson and Floyd Counties illustrate the revised facilities planning process but also show how local political dysfunction can overwhelm even the best schools. KERA's decentralized and participatory decision-making model may not be applicable in other states, and it is too soon to see if it will make profound differences in Kentucky. But the opportunities in KERA for accommodation of small rural schools and parent participation should be useful to small-school advocates elsewhere. (SAS) ED421314

DeYoung, A. J., & Howley, C. B. (16 Mar 1992). The Political Economy of Rural School Consolidation., 49p. This paper argues that social, political, and economic circumstances provide better explanations of rural school consolidation than the advertised curricular, pedagogical, or administrative benefits. Modern views of schooling over recent decades emphasize economic development and the need to improve international competitiveness. There is a distinction between "schools" (important places in which people construct a social reality) and "schooling" (an attempt at systematic instruction of knowledge). Historically, rural Americans valued schools as sites for community activities. Eventually, reformers took the communities out of schools and championed the "scientific" and "professional" views of schooling. Despite research advocating small schools and breakthroughs in distance learning, rural school closings continue. To explain the perpetuation of school closings, three theoretical interpretations suggest that an ideology of economic development and social progress influences both the organization of schooling and the predetermined purposes of instruction. First, the classical theories construe economic development as inherently benign. Second, in a "citizenship" perspective, schools become sites for the exercise of the legitimated authority of the state. A third set of theories includes predictable periods of crisis that compel the state to take extreme action. Changes in the political economy of West Virginia have led to recent crises in legitimation and subsequent school consolidations. (KS) ED347018

Dickerson, B. E. (1998). Community Involvement for Improving Rural School Facilities., 28pp. Paper presented at the Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities (Kansas City, MO, May 1-2, 1998). Community involvement in rural school facilities improvement projects is significant to the success of these projects. While literature regarding school-community partnerships and citizen involvement in school construction projects appears to be ample, writing which specifically addresses community involvement in rural school facilities is far less common. This report examines the community-school relationship in a rural school facilities improvement project in Waitsburg, Washington. It offers a brief review of relevant literature and then takes an indepth look at the Waitsburg community's role in their facilities improvement project. The project included the complete renovation and restoration of a historic school building to serve as a junior high facility and the remodeling and new construction required to upgrade the elementary school building. The report shows the importance of having positive contributions by community groups and individuals in completing these projects. It further reveals how productive involvement in school district operations is fostered through open communication, responsiveness to community wishes, and the creation of a sense of community ownership. (Contains 23 endnotes and 27 references). (G R) ED425628 You may be able to order this document from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service.

Dietrich, J. E. K. (1994). McHenry Day: Celebration of Rural School Culture. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 15, 3, 18-21 Spr 1994. Teachers at a rural elementary school slated for consolidation, worked with teacher education students during a full-day teaching experience that resulted in both classroom teachers and university students expanding their understanding of the teaching culture. The benefits of this experience included easing teacher transition to a new school culture. (LP) EJ486976

Dietrich, J. E. K. (Sep 1992). A Day in the Life of a Rural School. Paper presented at the Insights into Open Education, 25, 1 Sep 1992 Sep 1992. This paper describes the field experience of 30 undergraduate students in a teacher education program at the University of North Dakota. As part of an introductory teaching and learning course, teacher education students prepared for and taught elementary students in a small, rural school for one-day. The school enrolled 80 children in kindergarten through 4th grade and a combined class of 5th and 6th grades. There were six teachers and a principal who taught in the afternoon in the combined 5th and 6th grade class. Prior to the field experience, college students collaborated with classroom teachers in preparing the schedule for the day and developing learning activities on environmental themes. Students were required to write lesson plans for each learning activity and were encouraged to try out a variety of teaching methods including cooperative learning, learning centers, active learning, interactive techniques, and interdisciplinary methods. Students' narratives and papers about their field experience indicated they gained insight into the complexity of teaching; related their success and confidence to being prepared; realized the importance of planning but understood necessary adaptations to circumstances; and gained knowledge and experience in interacting with children. This field experience introduced beginning teacher education students to the complexity of teaching and to the roles of teachers and students in this process. (LP) ED352239

Dillon, K. (1997). Serving the Professional Information Needs of Rural Secondary-School Teachers in New South Wales, Australia. Paper presented at the School Library Media Quarterly, 25, 3, 171-76 Spr 1997. Describes a study that examined the professional information needs of rural secondary school teachers in New South Wales (Australia). Concludes that teacher librarians have a pivotal role in meeting information needs, and that computer networks provide a means of overcoming the teachers' professional and geographical isolation. (LRW) EJ546215

Din, F. (1997). The Inclusion Practice in Kentucky Rural Regular Schools. The Rural educator, 19(2), 6.

Din, F. S. (1997). The Operations of Kentucky Rural School Councils., 24pp. In: The Many Faces of Rural Education. Proceedings of the Annual NREA Convention (89th, Tucson, AZ, September 24-27, 1997); see RC 021 239. School councils, a school-based decision making (SBDM) form of governance, are mandated for Kentucky public schools by the Kentucky Education Reform Act (KERA). Commonly composed of the principal, three teachers, and two parents, the school council is designed to be a form of democratic or shared school governance. The missions of school councils are prescribed in KERA and include the areas of instruction, administration, and personnel. A random survey of 252 Kentucky rural schools was conducted to investigate what missions their school councils undertook, what benefits these schools had gained from SBDM, and what problems the councils were facing. From the 132 school councils that responded, it was found that approximately 20 percent of the school councils undertook all missions specified by the law, and the majority of councils undertook most missions. Some of the missions were undertaken by various district offices, principals, or school committees. The schools had benefited from their councils making concrete policies, promoting communication, addressing student needs, identifying priority problems, reviewing curriculum, selecting personnel, and using resources efficiently. Main problems included lack of staff and parental involvement, poor understanding of legal requirements, weakness in coordinating committees, short- term vision, time constraints, unequal membership status, lack of focus on instruction-related matters, lack of efficiency, functioning as a rubber stamp, little contribution from parent members, and lots of politics on councils. Contains 22 references and the survey questionnaire. (Author/TD) ED413146

Din, F. S. (1998). The Functions of Class Size Perceived by Chinese Rural School Teachers., 15pp. Paper presented at the Research Forum of the National Rural Education Association (Buffalo, NY, October 14-18, 1998). A survey containing open-ended questions about class size was distributed to teachers in five schools (3 elementary and 2 secondary) in a rural school district in south China. Responses were received from 55 of 100 teachers surveyed; all had 5 or more years of teaching experience. A class of 50 or more students was considered large, while one with 30 or fewer students was considered small. Virtually all of the teachers preferred smaller classes, but did not regard them as necessarily related to student achievement. Smaller classes were seen as being easier to manage, allowing individualized help to students, facilitating teaching effectiveness, and requiring less work by teachers. The teachers considered outside influences of society and home, as well as the learning atmosphere of school and class, to be important factors in learning outcomes. The teachers tended to encourage competition among students and to create competitive class activities, which they believed facilitate achievement. However, they also believed that peer help was important for student success in large classes. Contains 20 references and an English translation of the questionnaire. (SV) ED424045

Din, F. S. (1998). The Operations of Kentucky Rural School Councils. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 20, 2, 15-19 Win 1998. A survey of 127 rural Kentucky school councils found that more parent members than teacher members held positive views about their school-council performance, and more teacher members than principals had such opinions. Members indicated main benefits to the school from council performance and main problems faced by school councils. Contains 22 references. (TD) EJ582503

Doggett, S., Wilson, H., Colorado Historical Society. Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation., & National Register of Historic Places. (1999). Rural school buildings in Colorado: multiple property listing. [Denver, Colo.: State Historic Preservation Office Colorado Historical Society. Hed6/50.2/r35/1999

Dror, Y. (1993). The New Rural School in Upper Galilee (Eretz, Israel) at the Beginning of the 20th Century. Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 9, 3, 179-90 Win 1993. Proposes a model for rural education based on the progressive practices of a rural school in Israel in the early 1900s. Desirable characteristics of rural education are organized into four innovative educational models: education for work (including agricultural education); community education; social-ideological education; and curricular autonomy of the teacher and school. Contains 58 references. (KS) EJ484076

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Abel, M. H., & Sewell, J. (1999). Stress and Burnout in Rural and Urban Secondary School Teachers. Paper presented at the Journal of Educational Research, 92, 5, 287-93 May-Jun 1999. Surveys of rural and urban secondary teachers examined teacher stress and burnout. Urban teachers experienced significantly more stress from poor working conditions and staff relations. In both types of schools, student misbehavior and time pressures caused the highest stress. Working conditions and time pressures predicted burnout for rural teachers. Student misbehavior and working conditions predicted burnout for urban teachers. (SM) EJ594196

Eaton, T. H. (1922). Rural school survey of New York state; vocational education. Ithaca, N. Y.,. 371.42 371.42 Ea86

Ediger, M. (1994). Oral Communication Skills in the Rural School. Each student needs to achieve optimally in oral communication. The rural student should have ample opportunities to experience quality learning activities in communicating with others. First, pupils should have ample opportunities to practice making introductions. In society, people are introduced to each other. It is important to make the introductions properly so that enjoyable conversation might follow. Second, an excellent activity to stress is extemporaneous speaking. A learner should be given a topic and have to supply the content in a short period of time, say, 10 minutes. Third, pupils should select a poem to be read to the class. Fourth, rural learners should engage in debates. Debating can definitely lead to higher levels of thinking such as critical and creative thought. Sixth, students, when reading aloud out of the basal reader, should be instructed to read in an audience-centered manner. Seventh, rural pupils should write their own poems and read them to the class. Eighth, pupils should have ample opportunity to engage in creative prose writing. Ninth, practical writing is a must for all rural learners. Functional situations should be stressed. Thus, if pupils are practicing writing a friendly letter, the contents should be mailed or exchanged with classmates. (TB) ED378621

Ediger, M. (1994). Reading and the Rural School Pupil. The rural school teacher needs to be certain that pupils are attaining the skills needed in reading to be successful in the world of work or postsecondary education. A major source of problems for rural pupils is that many lack background information in order to attach meaning to what is being read. Adequate attention must be given to pupils developing necessary skills in meaningful reading of abstract words. To attain usable background information, teachers may use clear pictures that relate to what rural pupils will be reading, followed by a discussion of the illustrations so that the pupils will attach meaning to the content being read. If pupils secure the necessary background information prior to reading subject matter, they will become increasingly proficient in word recognition and identification. From the completed reading activity, the rural school pupil must be able to make use of content acquired. The result of separating facts from opinions, reality from fantasy, and accurate from the inaccurate is critical thinking. Being good readers assists rural school pupils to achieve objectives that are vital for their long-term goals. (RS) ED365937

Ediger, M. (1994). The Writing Curriculum in the Rural School. Writing, one of the three r's, must receive major emphasis in teaching-learning situations. Writing should permeate all curriculum areas. Both practical and creative writing need adequate emphasis. The student should be involved in selecting objectives, learning opportunities, and appraisal procedures. The writing teacher then becomes a guide, stimulator and resource person. Creative writing must place adequate emphasis on the poetry facet of the curriculum. The teacher needs to read orally to learners diverse kinds of poetry. Students should then have adequate chances to read these same kinds of poetry. Also, students need to experience that which is understood and comprehended. Rote learning and memorization do not harmonize with creative endeavors. Learners must make sense from what is being studied. For example, if students are studying the writing of tall tales, they must realize what encompasses this type of creative writing from other kinds of prose. Further, to develop interest in writing, the teacher must use procedures in teaching which cause students to attend and establish set. The learner and the curriculum must become one and not separate entities. Some possible exercises are the following: (1) students brainstorm a superhuman person by viewing an illustration showing a person at work; (2) students tell about a task that seemed impossible to complete; (3) students explain how in supernatural ways the task was completed. Rural school pupils need to attain optimally in the writing curriculum. (TB) ED378585

Ediger, M. ([1991). Language Arts in the Rural School. The background experiences of the rural student provide a wealth of ideas that can be expressed through poetry writing. Poetry forms which can be taught in the language arts class, or throughout the curriculum are: (1) the couplet, which contains two lines with ending words rhyming; (2) the triplet, which contains three lines with all ending words rhyming; (3) the quatrain, which contains four lines with diverse patterns of ending words rhyming such as line one with line three and line two with line four; (4) limericks, which have one set of rhymes for lines one, two, and five, and a different set of rhymes for lines three and four; (5) haiku, which has five, seven, five syllables respectively for its three lines; and (6) the tanka, which has a 5-7-4-7-7 progression of syllables per line, making a five-line poem. Language arts instruction for rural students should emphasize creativity. Creativity brings new ideas to modify, change, and improve the societal arena. As achievement progresses, students may wish to add alliteration, onomatopoeia, metaphors, and similes within a poem. (KS) ED331661

Eells, H. L., Moeller, H. C., & Swain, C. C. (1924). Rural school management. New York, Chicago [etc.]: C. Scribner's sons. Lb1567.e4 379.7 379.173 379.7 Ee55

Egelson, P. E. (15 Apr 1993). Change for Worse? One Teacher's Experience of Rural School Consolidation., 14pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Atlanta, GA, April 12-16, 1993). Motivated in part by impending consolidation, a Chapter I reading teacher in an economically depressed rural community asked her middle-school students (n=30) to interview one person who had attended a community school in the past. Questions centered around school buildings, teachers, classes, and special activities. The students read the questions to the interviewees and wrote down their responses. Students put the responses in paragraph form and discussed the results in class. Comments about the school buildings suggested that school maintenance was poor and there was a lack of money. Positive responses about community schools involved school values and rituals, and specific memories of things such as cafeteria food, teachers, and activities. One respondent recalled integration during the 1960s as a "wonderful time". There were hints that the quality of education received at community schools was not always the best. Local middle school and high school students now attend large consolidated schools with more class offerings, newer facilities, and the latest in technology. Nevertheless, although these students are surrounded by people, they go through school alone with no sense of community to guide them. Despite poor school conditions and the lack of resources, students and teachers in the community schools of the past knew each other, learned together, and felt secure in their environment. (KS) ED362351

Ehrich, R. W., McCreary, F., Reaux, R., Rowland, K., & Ramsey, A. (1998). Home-School Networking To Support Constructivist Learning in a Rural Elementary School: Lessons from Families, Schools, and Researchers., 11pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Diego, CA, April 13-17, 1998). The U.S. Department of Education is supporting a 3-year program involving Virginia Tech's computer department and a rural public elementary school. The project seeks to determine whether immersive access to networked computing by students and their families has measurable effects on long- term student achievement. A fifth-grade classroom was designed with a networked computer for every two students; the university is lending a computer for an extended time period to the family of each participating student. After training together, fifth-graders (randomly selected) work with parents on a child-centered curriculum that encourages reading, writing, exploration, collaboration, and critical analysis. Two control groups are used to assess long-term effects on student achievement. Preliminary findings suggest that the PCs for Families Program is well- regarded by both parents and children. Many children are strongly influenced by the program, and most experienced a renewed connection to learning. The technology has not built social capital, but helps families predisposed to active involvement. Researchers were unprepared for some families' weak parenting abilities and lack of competence. Next year, the program will stress family integration and parenting skills. Key program elements are discussed. (MLH) ED422614

Elam, C., Hughes, S., & Goodman, N. (2001). A Collaboration Workshop to Prepare High School Students for Medical Careers: A Partnership Between the University of Kentucky Undergraduate and Medical Schools with Rural High Schools and Hospitals. Paper presented at the Journal of College Admission.

Ellsbury, K., Doescher, M., & Hart, L. (2000). US Medical Schools and the Rural Family Physician Gender Gap. Family Medicine, 32(5), 331.

Elrod, G. F., & And, O. (1994). Rural School-Community Partnerships: "We Take Care of Our Own ". Paper presented at the Theme issue topic: "Transition in Rural America.". Advantages of school-community partnerships in developing rural transitional programs for disabled students include informal community politics that provide opportunities for educational support, accessibility of nonschool personnel, acquaintanceship of parents, strong rural work ethic, and easy identification of community resources. Provides examples of successful rural school-community partnerships delivering postsecondary transition training to students with disabilities. (LP) EJ482194

Elrod, G. F., & And, O. (Mar 1994). Infusing Rural School-Community Partnerships into Transition Components of Individualized Education Plans: Processes and Outcomes., 9pp. In: Montgomery, Diane, Ed. Rural Partnerships: Working Together. Proceedings of the Annual National Conference of the American Council on Rural Special Education (ACRES) (14th, Austin, Texas, March 23-26, 1994); see RC 019 557. During the 1980s, school-community partnerships increased nationwide, prompted by diminishing federal and state financial support for education, increasing numbers of at-risk students, and initiatives promoting local decision-making. Numerous examples in the literature portray partnerships involving "adoption" of schools by businesses, school use of mentors or volunteers, provision of financial incentives to students, and school-to-work transition. However, most examples have a decidedly urban focus, and students with disabilities are seldom targeted. Although rural areas have unique problems that may hinder the development of partnerships, this paper offers the more optimistic view that rural areas also possess unique resources upon which successful partnerships can be built. A primary advantage of rural areas is the synergistic relationship between the school and the community that it serves. This synergy is evident in the informality of rural community politics, accessibility of individuals to each other regardless of position, acquaintanceship of parents of disabled students, rural-oriented work ethic, and ease with which local resources can be identified and accessed. Examples of rural partnerships that facilitate the postsecondary transition to work of disabled and special needs students include a regional skills training program held at community sites and businesses in rural eastern Oregon, and two instances in which community coalitions made possible the supported employment and eventual independence of developmentally disabled persons in rural Mississippi. (SV) ED369620

Ermolaev, V. (1990). The Rural School: A Dramatic Change Needed. Paper presented at the Soviet Education, 32, 2, 5-23 Feb 1990. Addresses issues raised at the All-Union Congress of Workers in Public Education concerning improvement of the USSR's rural schools. Cites statistics depicting the inferior status of school buildings, instructional materials, student transportation, and teacher-pupil ratio. Connects rural school improvement to increased agricultural production. Advocates major restructuring and increased funding. (CH) EJ429327

Espe, J. O. (1998). Creating School Based Assistive Technology Teams in Rural States: An Inservice Training Model., 5pp. Paper presented at the CSUN 1998 Conference (Los Angeles, CA, March 1998). This paper describes an inservice training program, developed collaboratively by the Idaho Assistive Technology Project and the Idaho State Department of Education, that is designed to increase the expertise of Idaho's special educators in the area of assistive technology. The lack of training Idaho's special educators have had in assistive technology and the need for training is discussed. Eleven school districts are participating in the training. The school districts have training teams that consist of special and regular educators, speech and language pathologists, physical therapists, occupational therapists, special and regular education administrators, and parents. The training uses self- administered training modules that include floppy discs, CD-ROMS, video tapes, worksheet packets, and a final test on a computer disc. In addition to the training modules, participating districts are provided with kits consisting of several pieces of assistive technology. The training model has been found to provide an effective and efficient method of training special education personnel in how to select, acquire, and use assistive technology with students with disabilities. (CR) ED420965

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Fan, X., & Chen, M. (1999). Academic Achievement of Rural School Students: A Multi-Year Comparison with Their Peers in Suburban and Urban Schools. Journal of research in rural education, 15(1), 31.

Fan, X., & Chen, M. J. (1998). Academic Achievement of Rural School Students: A Multi-Year Comparison with Their Peers in Suburban and Urban Schools., 41p. This study examined the issue of whether any differences exist in school achievement among rural, suburban, and urban school students in four major areas of school learning: reading, mathematics, science, and social studies. Data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS: 88), which followed a nationally representative sample of 24,500 students from the 8th to the 12th grade, were used. Performance comparisons among rural, suburban, and urban students were made for the nationally representative samples of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders in four areas of school learning: reading, math, science, and social studies. Performance comparisons were made after adjusting for the potential influence of socioeconomic status. Performance comparison analyses were conducted separately for the four major ethnic groups (Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, and Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders) and separately for public and private school students. In addition, performance comparisons of rural, suburban, and urban students were made separately for the four geographic regions of the United States: the Northeast, Midwest, South, and West. Classifications of rural, suburban, and urban schools, and of geographic regions, were based on the 1980 Census classification of the schools from which the students were sampled. The results showed that students from rural schools performed as well as, if not better than, their peers in metropolitan schools in math, science, reading, and social studies. Contains 70 references and 7 data tables. (TD) ED418829

Fan, X., & Chen, M. J. (1999). Academic Achievement of Rural School Students: A Multi-Year Comparison with Their Peers in Suburban and Urban Schools. "Rural Student Achievement.". Paper presented at the Theme issue. Achievement in reading, math, science, and social studies was examined among rural, suburban, and urban school students using data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988. Controlling for socioeconomic status and using nationally representative samples of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders, rural student achievement equalled or exceeded that of their peers in metropolitan schools. Contains 84 references. (Author/TD) EJ591940

Fanning, J., & ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (1995). Rural school consolidation and student learning. [Charleston, WV: Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools Appalachia Educational Laboratory. Ed 1.310/2:384484

Fanning, J., & ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (1995). Rural school consolidation and student learning. [Charleston, WVA: Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. Ed 1.331/2:edo-rc-95-4

Farah, I. (1991). School Ka Sabaq: Literacy in a Girls' Primary School in Rural Pakistan., 24pp. In: PENN Working Papers, Volume 7, Number 2/Fall 1991; see FL 020 001., 59- 81. Literacy learning practices in the context of a girls' school in Pakistan are described as part of a larger study. "School ka sabaq" or "school lesson" is recognized as involving reading and writing activities as well as behavior particular to the institution of the school. The goals of school ka sabaq, which are to pass exams and acquire credentials, are determined by and limited to the institution of schooling. Although the teachers do not include in their goals the transfer of skills learned at school to reading and writing needs in everyday life, the community members mention these as an expected or desired outcome of "school ka sabaq." A description of the reading and writing activities along with the division of time and space in the school shows that literacy activities are reflected in and determined by the context of the particular institution within which they are learned and practiced. School-community relations and the community's goals for girls' literacy are also described. (Author/LB) ED341248

Fasko, S., & Fasko, D. (1998). A systems approach to self-efficacy and achievement in rural schools. Education, 119(2), 292.

Faulk, D., & Mancuso, F. M. (1998). A Collaborative Effort for Sex Education in Rural School Settings. Paper presented at the Nursing and Health Care Perspectives, 19, 6, 271-73 Nov-Dec 1998. A collaborative effort among community leaders, schools, parents, and nursing school faculty developed a sex education program for rural fourth- to sixth-graders. A commercial program was revised using the following criteria: cultural sensitivity, appropriate reading level, active and didactic instruction, and a focus on abstinence. (SK) EJ578952

Favero, P. (1992). Rural Employees' Views on the Transition from High School to Work. Paper presented at the Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 29, 4, 53-72 Sum 1992. Interviews with 101 employers in a 6-county rural area and survey responses from 95 indicated that most have difficulty hiring and retaining qualified workers; most offer formal training; their low level of satisfaction with high school graduates increased as educational levels increased; and highest concerns were about motivation, listening, problem solving, creative thinking, and teamwork skills. (SK) EJ449609

Fentiman, A., Hall, A., & Bundy, D. (1999). School Enrolment Patterns in Rural Ghana: A Comparative Study of the Impact of Location, Gender, Age and Health on Children's Access to Basic Schooling. Paper presented at the Comparative Education, 35, 3, 331-49 Nov 1999. A school census of three rural regions of Ghana examined enrollments, student age and gender, age at first enrollment, gender disparities among classes, dropouts, and the proportion of never-enrolled children. Focus group discussions with parents, teachers, and children highlighted major obstacles confronting education: child labor, health problems, disadvantaged locations, and low female enrollment. (Contains 33 references.) (Author/SV) EJ597851

Ferre, V., & Ferre, L. (1992). Rural School Superintendents View Special Education: Expressing Their Concerns. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 14, 1, 11-13 Fall 1992. A 15-item questionnaire was administered to 36 rural Nebraska superintendents concerning special education. Financing of special education programs ranked as the number one concern of superintendents. Other high ranking concerns were meeting state guidelines, increasing enrollment, shortages of support service personnel, and matching the curriculum to students' needs. (KS) EJ458169

Ferriss, E. N. (1922). Rural school survey of New York state; the rural high school. Ithaca, N.Y.,. La337.f35 379.7 379.7 f417

Finke, L., & Williams, J. (1999). Alcohol and Drug Use of Inner-City versus Rural School Age Children. Paper presented at the Journal of Drug Education, 29, 3, 279-91 1999. Examines the prevalence and types of substance use in inner-city and rural eight- to twelve-year-olds (N=29) and the relationships between child substance use, self esteem, peer substance use, and family climate. Personal drug use and peer drug use were present in both groups. Inner-city children reported more alcohol and marijuana use, while rural children reported more use of inhalants. (Author/MKA) EJ606197

FloerchingerFranks, G., Machala, M., & Gerberding, S. (2000). Evaluatin of a Pilot Program in Rural Schools to Increase Bicycle and Motor Vehicle Safety. Journal of Community Health, 25(2), 113.

Fox, M. (1996). Rural School Transportation as a Daily Constraint in Students' Lives. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 17, 2, 22-27 Win 199 1996. Study of how busing time to school affected daily activities in 64 rural households in Eastern Townships School Board, Quebec (Canada), found that household schedules altered according to distance from school, constraints on students' and families' activities increased as travel time increased, travel time was viewed as wasted time, and farm households were more constrained than nonfarm households. (TD) EJ523557

Franklin, B., & Glascock, C. (1998). The Relationship Between Grade Configuration and Student Performance in Rural Schools. Journal of research in rural education, 14(3), 149.

Frick, M. J., & And, O. (1995). Rural and Urban Inner-City High School Student Knowledge and Perception of Agriculture. Paper presented at the Journal of Agricultural Education, 36, 4, 1-9 1995. Knowledge and perceptions of agriculture were measured for 668 rural and 453 inner-city high school students. Both were most knowledgeable about natural resources; rural students were least knowledgeable about plants, urban students about policy. Rural students had significantly higher knowledge scores but more favorable perceptions only in the animal and plant areas. (SK) EJ514410

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Galton, M., Hargreaves, L., & Comber, C. (1998). Classroom Practice and the National Curriculum in Small Rural Primary Schools. British educational research journal, 24(1), 43.

Gandara, P., Gutierrez, D., & OHara, S. (2001). Planning for the Future in Rural and Urban High Schools. Journal of Education for Students Placed At Risk, 6(1/2), 73-94.

Gibbs, R. (2000). The Challenge Ahead for Rural Schools. Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy, 15(1), 82.

Glenn, C., & Randall, E. V. (Mar 1994). Collaborative Consultation in a Rural School., 11pp. In: Montgomery, Diane, Ed. Rural Partnerships: Working Together. Proceedings of the Annual National Conference of the American Council on Rural Special Education (ACRES) (14th, Austin, Texas, March 23-26, 1994); see RC 019 557. Rural and urban elementary schools implemented collaborative consultation to serve special education students. In the rural school, the special education teacher spends 4 days per week in the classrooms. She spends Wednesdays and 1 week out of 5 testing, writing IEPs, planning, and completing paperwork. The principal, instructional assistant, TAG teacher, speech and language teacher, itinerant consultant, and most classroom teachers are involved in the collaborative consultation. Before implementing collaborative consultation, team members spent a year or more gathering information through conferences, visitations, and discussions. In the urban school, the resource room teacher, Chapter-1 teacher, instructional assistants, speech and language teacher, principal, and classroom teachers reviewed information on collaborative consultation over a semester and developed guidelines. They started in reading classes and continued inservice training and regular meetings. Program evaluations over several years showed many strengths but also concerns about curriculum adaptation and planning time. Collaborative consultation requires close teamwork, extensive planning, specific consulting skills, flexibility, administrator support, and sufficient allocation of time for planning and implementation. (KS) ED369635

Gndara, P., Gutirrez, D., & O'Hara, S. (1 April 2001). Planning for the Future in Rural and Urban High Schools. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 6(1), 73-93(21). Studies of postsecondary aspirations tend to assume that adolescents from different ethnic groups share commonalities of perspective that are unaffected by the areas in which they live and go to school. Largely missing from this literature is a consideration of the intersection of ethnicity, development, and location. This study looks at the ways in which White and Latino students in an urban and a rural high school differ in their perspectives on postsecondary plans according to grade level, ethnicity, and urbanicity. We find a number of differences in student attitudes and behavior depending on whether students attend rural or urban high schools. High school experiences are also moderated by ethnicity across locations. However, with respect to how students want others to see them, students in the rural high school are more like each other than they are like their ethnic counterparts in the urban school. We conclude that, in many respects, both Latino and White students experience schooling and adolescent development differently in rural and urban schools.

Gold, V., & Williams, E. (1998). The Entrepreneurial Curriculum: Rural School-Community Process for Vocational Training of Adolescents with Disabilities., 9pp. In: Coming Together: Preparing for Rural Special Education in the 21st Century. Conference Proceedings of the American Council on Rural Special Education (18th, Charleston, SC, March 25-28, 1998); see RC 021 434. Although formal vocational training in technical high schools or community-based job placements provides opportunities for adolescents with disabilities, educators need to consider a broader continuum of vocational training options for these students. Entrepreneurial options such as school-based businesses, internships, and apprenticeships may serve to remedy many of the educational, personal, and rural issues that can contribute to poor vocational preparation, a loss of autonomy, and reduced independence for disabled students. Formal entrepreneurial programs strengthen the ties between schools and community businesses, maximize use of limited community resources, and in the long run, improve students' sense of self-efficacy and personal control in their lives. However, these programs require a significant amount of skill and commitment on the part of special educators and school administrators. Two tables summarize the career education competencies students should acquire at elementary and junior high levels as a basis for entrepreneurial training during adolescence. Educational objectives and desirable economic and job-related knowledge and skills are listed for the domains of the individual, family, community, town, region, and nation at the elementary level, and for the domains of personal, business, and global economics at the junior high level. A third table summarizes objectives and skills of the entrepreneurial curriculum suggested for adolescents with disabilities. Contains 12 references. (TD) ED417899

Gorman, K. S., & Pollitt, E. (1992). School Efficiency in Rural Guatemala. Paper presented at the International Review of Education/Internationale Zeitschrift fuer Erziehungswissenschaft/Revue Internationale de Pedagogie, v38, 5, 519-34 Sep 1992. Assesses the provision of universal primary education in seven rural villages in Guatemala. Indicates that although increasing numbers of children are enrolling in school, repetition and dropout rates remain high and that girls are at a greater disadvantage than boys. Suggests that families, communities, and schools provide input into policy formation. (DMM) EJ462956

Gothberg, E. J. ([Dec 1990). The Joys and Challenges of School Counseling Professionals in Rural Communities: A Qualitative Research Study., 28p. For many rural residents, life is often characterized by harsh circumstances that threaten the very fabric of their existence, while for others, who tend to identify with a higher socio-economic class, rural living is a conscious choosing of an alternative lifestyle. Schools within these rural communities would also be quite different from their urban and suburban counterparts. The most obvious characteristic of rural schools is their smallness which results in different climate and atmosphere. It is understandable that rural guidance counselors face many positive as well as challenging stressors in their daily lives. This study used qualitative methods to determine the professional and personal climate of school counselors within rural areas of Maine. Data were collected through group and individual interviews with guidance counselors (N=16). Nine different themes were covered during the interviewing process: isolation, guidance program issues, relationship with administration, professional development, personal environment, professional resources, professional environment, recruitment, and networking. Results indicated that there were unique challenges as well as deeply personal and professionally satisfying advantages to serving as a school guidance counselor in a rural setting. (Author/ABL) ED326791

Grady, M. L. (Apr 1992). A Rural School District in Decay., 43pp. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of Small/Rural Schools (Norman, OK, March 30-April 1, 1992). This report describes a study of a rural school district that received national press coverage for an administrative crisis that began with the termination of a longtime district teacher, involved resignations and recalls from the board and the superintendency, and led to intensive conflicts among teachers, school board members, district administrators, and the community. Data were obtained through personal interviews of teachers, community members, past and present board members, administrators, business leaders, ministers, county officials, secretaries, and a school custodian. The interviewees were asked to describe issues related to the recent recall elections of school board members, superintendent turnover, and the placing of the district into receivership. Other sources of information included the court transcript of the teacher termination, documents from the school and community meetings, results of a community attitude survey, official letters, and newspaper accounts. The three main themes of the conflict were related to superintendent turnover, the appropriate role of the district secretary, and community factions. This study suggests that superintendents should be cautious in assuming superintendencies in troubled districts, and that frequent recalls, or the threat of recall, clearly are a deterrent for seeking a school board position. It warns that such controversies tend to erode community spirit and negatively affect community support of the school district; it also warns that children suffer when there is no educational leadership. Finally, it is suggested that preparation programs may need to focus greater attention on preparing individuals for rural superintendencies; and that professional associations may be able to assist crisis districts as mediators and facilitators. This paper contains numerous data tables about the district. (LP) ED345905

Grady, M. L., & Bryant, M. T. (1991). A Study of Frequent Superintendent Turnover in a Rural School District: The Constituents' Perspective. Paper presented at the Journal of Rural and Small Schools, 4, 3, 10-13 Win 1991. Interviews with educators and community members in a very small rural Nebraska school district suggested causes for the district's exceptionally high superintendent turnover rate: low salary and status, lack of challenge, use of the position as a stepping stone, declining economy and population, community transition, and the superintendent's "outsider" status. (SV) EJ431747

Grant, D. F., & And, O. (Feb 1997). Achievement Motivation in Rural African-American Female High School Honor Graduates. Preliminary Report., 31pp. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Eastern Educational Research Association (20th, Hilton Head Island, SC, February 19-22, 1997). This report examines motivational variables and support structures that influenced the success of African American females who graduated with honors from a rural Georgia high school. Case studies focus on the nature of the honor graduates' friendships and the role that friendship may have played in motivating these students to become honor graduates. Subjects were 6 of the 10 African- American females who were 1996 honor graduates. Data were collected from a participant questionnaire and interview protocol; school transcripts; and instruments assessing intelligence, self-concept, motivational orientation, and school attitudes. Participants had ability scores in the average to above average range and grade point averages ranging from 89.86 to 93.64 percent. Participants perceived themselves to be strongest in the area of behavioral conduct; global self-worth and social acceptance were also very positive. The only domain in which the group mean indicated negative self-perceptions was athletic competence. In addition, participants felt most successful when learning new and interesting things, solving tricky or complex problems, understanding complicated ideas, and thinking. The group agreed that the purposes of schooling were to teach students to overcome obstacles, set high standards and not give up, prepare for challenging jobs, become creative problem solvers, and be imaginative. Although participants reported that they had strong support from parents and other family members, it was the casual yet consistent support from friends that proved to be a critical factor in their pursuit of high academic achievement. Appendices include descriptions of the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents, the Motivational Orientation Scales, and Scales for Assessing the Purposes of School. (LP) ED409138

Grey, M. (1997). Secondary Labor in the Meatpacking Industry: Demographic change and Student Mobility in Rural Iowa Schools. Journal of research in rural education, 13(3), 153.

Griffin, B. L., & And, O. (1994). Student Perceptions of an Alternative School: Implications for Rural Educators. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 16, 1, 21-25 Fall 1994. A survey of 45 at-risk students enrolled in an alternative rural high school revealed that teachers appeared more concerned about students, were less authoritarian, allowed students more input into decision making, treated students more fairly, and were more enthusiastic than teachers at traditional high schools previously attended by respondents. (LP) EJ495359

Gritzmacher, H. L., & Gritzmacher, S. C. (1995). Referral, Assessment, and Placement Practices Used in Rural School Districts with Native American Students in Special Education. Paper presented at the Rural Special Education Quarterly, 14, 1, 11-19 Win 1995. Special education directors, special education teachers, and Indian education directors from 25 northern Minnesota rural school districts were surveyed concerning special education practices involving Native American students. Although most respondents were satisfied with the referral and placement process, Indian education directors expressed concern about the lack of culturally sensitive assessment instruments. (LP) EJ500112

Gruenhagen, K., McCracken, T., & True, J. (1999). Using Distance Education Technologies for the Supervision of Student Teachers in Remote Rural Schools. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 18(3/4), 58-65.

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Haas, T. ([Mar 1990). Keeping School in Rural America: A New Paradigm for Rural Education and Community Development., 18p. This paper differentiates between the "old story" of rural education and the emerging "new story." It describes the tradition (old story) in which rural education is related to the local and national economies and lays out fragments of the new story, a paradigm that combines rural education and the rural economy in a way that strengthens them both. The old story reflects society's continuing shift from agriculture to industry and from industry to information. It suggests that rural schools have two purposes, to educate students either as participants in communities that are perpetually dependent on natural resources, or to take their places in urban industrial America. The result has been urbanization and rural decline. The new story says rural education is responsive to changing economics, demographics, and societal expectations. It holds promise for improving opportunities for rural children and communities. The characteristics of rural education are decentralization, diversity, unpredictability, evolving outcomes, high value for flexible generalists, and small scale. The mission of rural education is to meet community needs. Schools should provide choices for students who choose to stay in rural America, as well as for those who leave. Local boards regain central importance. Bureaucracy is limited. Curriculum is redesigned for authentic, relevant learning. Course delivery more closely predicts learning situations students experience throughout their lives. Teachers are generalists trained to help students find and use information. Schedules fit the task. Schools change from isolated hierarchical bureaucracies to networks of flexible, interdependent agencies acting in symbiosis with their communities. In conclusion, several examples of the "new story" in action are described and a list of 44 references is also provided. (TES) ED323041

Hadfield, O. D., & And, O. (1992). A Science Workshop to Improve Confidence in Rural Elementary School Teachers. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 13, 2, 11-15 Win 199 1992. Describes a five-day summer workshop for rural elementary teachers to improve hands-on science instruction. Participants showed significant gains in science knowledge and science teaching confidence but showed no significant improvement in science teaching attitudes. Follow-up visits to schools revealed high usage of the activities and a positive student response. (KS) EJ443519

Haggerty, M. E. (1922). Rural school survey of New York State; educational achievement. Ithaca, N.Y.: [Joint Committee on Rural Schools]. 371.26

Hale, S. v. H. (1991). School-Community Collaboration in a Rural Setting: Sources and Profiles. Knowledge Brief, Number Eight. This article provides resources for school-community collaboration to support at- risk students and their families in rural settings. Rural schools and their communities must work together efficiently and economically to counteract problems such as geographic isolation, shortage of resources, economic decline, lack of political power and difficulties associated with living in a modern society. The article describes five regional and national resource organizations that support school-community collaboration. It provides information on activities, services, contacts, and phone numbers. The article also outlines state efforts in California and Utah and describes eight collaborative programs within the Far West Laboratory Region. The Far West Laboratory serves Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah in linking educators to share information, expertise, and innovative practices. It provides technical assistance to build local capacity for continued self-improvement. The program profiles illustrate that school-community collaboration should address both the needs of the children and the needs of the community. The last section contains an annotated bibliography of nine publications related to school-community collaboration. (LP) ED343751

Haleman, D., & DeYoung, A. (2000). A Reflective Essay Concerning Something Better: The Experiences of Appalachian Rural Trust Schools. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 16(1), 3-7.

Hales, L. W., & McGrew, R. R. ([1991). AIDS Education in Rural Oregon School Districts: Compliance with State Curriculum Guidelines., 21p. The Oregon State Department of Education mandates age-appropriate curricula for all grade levels on infectious diseases, including AIDS, ARC, HIV, and Hepatitis B. The objectives of this study were: (1) to determine the extent to which AIDS education was occurring in three remote rural Oregon school districts; (2) to examine the focus of the curriculum across grade levels; and (3) to compare the instructional practices with the state guidelines. Two questionnaires were designed for application at elementary and secondary education levels. They reflect curricular objectives of the Oregon State Department of Education. The questions were constructed to determine if the teacher had implemented an AIDS education curriculum, and if so, how much time was devoted to each objective. In May 1990, the questionnaires were distributed to all elementary and secondary school teachers in the three small school districts. Results show that 53% of the elementary teachers and 23% of secondary teachers incorporated AIDS education into their curriculum. The results suggest that rural school districts may lack local policy and curricular programs for implementing AIDS education. The report contains tables of the objectives with the percent of teachers at each level addressing each objective, and the mean amount of time spent on each objective. This paper contains 18 references. (KS) ED334033

Harmon, H. (1997). Rural Schools in a Global Economy. The School administrator, 54(9), 32.

Harmon, H. (1999). Creating Work-Based Learning Opportunities for Students in Rural Schools. The High school magazine, 6(6), 22.

Harmon, H. L. (2000). Linking School-to-Work and Rural Development. Paper presented at the FORUM for Applied Research and Public Policy, 15, 1 p97-100 Spr 2000. Suggests that school-to-work initiatives can be an important policy tool for rural development. Discusses key components of school-to-work systems (school-based learning, work-based learning, and connecting activities); national and international trends impacting rural economies; rural advantages and weaknesses related to economic development; and potential community benefits of local school-to-work partnerships. (SV) EJ603971

Harmon, H., & Branham, D. (1999). Creating Standards for Rural Schools: A Matter of Values. The High school magazine, 7(4), 14.

Harriman, N. (1998). Inclusive teaching in rural schools: Expanding on tradition. Rural special education quarterly, 17(1), 21.

Hill, J. (1993). The Rural School Principalship: Unique Challenges, Opportunities. Paper presented at the NASSP Bulletin, 77, 555, 77-81 Oct 1993. Presents findings based on author's research and experience as principal in California's Mojave Desert. Five basic characteristics distinguish the rural principalship: lack of an assistant principal or other support staff; assumption of other duties, including central office tasks, teaching, or management of another site; less severe student discipline problems; increased community visibility; and lack of organizational or peer support. (MLH) EJ470537

Hilton, E. (1949). Rural school management. New York,: American Book Co. Lb1567.h5 379.173 379.7

Hipps, D. (1999). Teaching Culture Conscious Diversity Strategies for Rural Schools. The Rural educator, 20(3), 25.

Hobbs, B. B. (Apr 1994). School-Community Agency Collaboration in Rural Settings., 26pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (New Orleans, LA, April 4-8, 1994). A multiple-case study examined how schools and community human-services agencies collaborate to meet the needs of at-risk youth in two rural Oregon counties. Four youth services teams (YST) were composed of approximately 10 members each, representing local public schools, county social and health services agencies, and local law enforcement units. Teams received referrals of high-risk youth, met with each referred student and interested others (parents, school staff, caseworker), and developed an action plan for the student. Observations of YST meetings and interviews with YST members and selected school personnel examined the formation, structure, and outcomes of collaborations. With regard to formation, results indicate that: (1) the presence of a shared problem provided the impetus to collaborate; (2) there was no apparent advantage in having administrators versus direct-service staff act as conveners; and (3) failure to include representatives of all stakeholder groups early in the process led to misunderstandings and frustrations with YST work. Findings with regard to structure were: (1) the failure to clearly define and agree upon objectives, roles, and responsibilities hampered YST efforts; (2) the education sector supplied most of the leadership and administrative support; (3) one organization typically served as the "fixer" to facilitate the process of collaboration; and (4) an organization's inkind contribution of personnel was often, in reality, an individual's contribution of personal time. Outcomes included improved communication between schools and community agencies, and increased access to community services for at-risk youth. (Author/SV) ED368535

Hobbs, B. B., & Chang, I. J. (1996). Identifying and Meeting the School-Age Child Care Needs of Rural Families. Paper presented at the Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 88, 4, 13-16,24 Win 1996. Assessment of the school-age child care needs of 3,697 rural residents in six Oregon counties found that (1) only 29% of children did not need after-school care; (2) affordable care is a serious need; (3) older youth and family providers were primary care sources, indicating a need for training and support; and (4) day care problems affect parents' job performance and number of working hours. (SK) EJ537114

Hobbs, B. B., & Chang, J. I. (Nov 1995). What Are the School-Age Child Care Needs of Families in Rural Communities?, 11pp. Paper presented at the annual Conference of the National Council on Family Relations (Portland, OR, November 15-18, 1995). During 1994 and 1995, the Commissions on Children and Families in six rural Oregon counties joined with local elementary schools and the Oregon State University Extension Service to conduct surveys to determine the school-age child care needs of local families. Data were collected and analyzed, and individual reports were prepared by county. The present study used the aggregated data to gain a broader sense of how families in rural counties define their school-age child-care needs. Results identified the after-school arrangements used most often, problems encountered with child care; self-care topics that parents felt children needed more information on, and when parents felt care was needed. In addition, the survey data identified four major school-age child care issues: (1) the need for care; (2) the impact child care problems have on parents' job performance; (3) the need for affordable care, particularly for single-parent families and families with more than one child; and (4) quality of care. Older school-age youth and family day care providers were identified as two major sources of care but both groups need adequate training and support to ensure safe, quality care. The survey results also indicated that families' needs for school-age care vary, and thus, no single approach will meet the family's requirements and preferences. Based on the results, it was concluded that the needs for care are as relevant for families in rural communities as they are for families in heavily populated areas. (WJC) ED407064

Hodges, V. P. (1995). Teaching Writing to At-Risk Students in a Rural High School. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 16, 2, 28-31 Win 199 1995. A teacher describes strategies for improving writing skills of rural at-risk high school students including writing stories for kindergarten students; developing portfolios that include descriptive, expository, and persuasive pieces; and participating in a career development unit that incorporates writing assignments. Students also learn to find information in the library, through interviews, and through computer searches. (LP) EJ500104

Hodges, V. P. (1998). Need for Improvement of Rural School Facilities., 19pp. Paper presented at the Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities (Kansas City, MO, May 1-2, 1998). The Government Accounting Agency estimates that one third of the nation's schools are in need of extensive repairs or replacement of one or more buildings. The condition of America's rural schools are at a crisis stage and need to be improved to continue to educate rural youth. This paper profiles the state of rural schools' infrastructure, rural districts' economic problems, and the need to upgrade school facilities. It provides a context for improving rural facilities, including discussions on ways to upgrade systems for technology needs, energy efficiency, and handicap accessibility. Additionally, it offers an analysis of schools in the pre- industrial age, prior to World War II, post war, and in the age of technology. The paper discusses minimum standards for a quality facility, including space standards, heating/ventilation/air-conditioning requirements, public review, and federal funding. Final comments address how inadequate educational facilities can affect instruction, and the role of the school facility within a rural community. (GR) ED425632 You may be able to order this document from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service.

Hodges, V. P. (Oct 1994). Teaching Writing to At-Risk Students in a Rural High School., 13pp. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the National Rural Education Association (86th, Salt Lake City, UT, October 4-8, 1994). Of poor academic skills, perhaps the most prevalent among at-risk students is the lack of ability to composeto develop ideas in print. Providing opportunities to learn that skill opens a whole new world for young people who believe they are incapable of learning. This paper describes writing instruction that was provided over a 4-year period in language arts classes for at-risk students in a rural high school in Forgan, Oklahoma. Students in the classes had scored in the lower 50 percent on a state-mandated achievement test. Students had learning disabilities, were unmotivated, came from dysfunctional homes, or had been in trouble with the court system. Nearly all were boys. Classes were limited to 10- 12 students. In the initial diagnostic writing assessment, many students could not write even one sentence. Teaching methods included having students use note cards to jot down ideas, brainstorming, minilessons on plot development and dialogue, cooperative story writing and proofreading, use of computers for final composition, presentation of stories to kindergarten students, and development and self-evaluation of portfolios. Students consistently improved their ability to write over the 4-year period, and learned to find information in the library, through interviews, and through computer searches. Their self-esteem improved because they knew they were learning to write, and this new skill helped them in their other classes. This paper includes sample writing assignments. (SV) ED392564

Hooper, H. H., Jr., & And, O. (Mar 1997). Concerns of Rural School Superintendents in Texas Regarding Inclusion As a Method for Serving Special Needs Children., 8pp. In: Promoting Progress in Times of Change: Rural Communities Leading the Way; see RC 020 986. This paper reports on the concerns of rural school superintendents in Texas regarding the inclusion of special needs students in regular classrooms. The Change Facilitator Stages of Concerns Questionnaire (CFSoCQ) and a demographic data sheet were completed by 484 of the 708 rural superintendents in Texas. The CFSoCQ consists of 35 items reflecting stages of concerns that users, or potential users, of an innovation may have in the areas of awareness, informational, personal, management, consequence, collaboration, and refocusing issues. Nearly half of respondents were from school districts with enrollments of under 500 students, 59 percent of respondents reported that 6-15 percent of district enrollment were special needs students, nearly 93 percent were actively engaged with inclusion, and approximately 60 percent reported that inclusion was partially implemented in their school district. Questionnaire results indicate that superintendents expressed more concerns about issues related to awareness, information, management, and refocusing and less concern about personal, consequence, and collaboration issues. School district size or proportion of special needs students did not make a significant difference in superintendents' concerns about inclusion. However, the status of implementing inclusion generated significantly different kinds and intensities of concerns among superintendents. Superintendents did not perceive themselves as facilitators of inclusion implementation but rather, as playing a significant role in planning and oversight. (LP) ED406102

Hooper, H. H., Jr., Pankake, A., & Schroth, G. (1999). Inclusion in Rural School Districts: Where Is the Superintendent? Paper presented at the Rural Special Education Quarterly, 18, 1, 23-27 Win 1999. A survey of 482 rural Texas superintendents examined their attitudes toward inclusion as a method of serving students with special needs. Superintendents were uncertain whether inclusion is the best method for serving special needs children and were more involved in planning for inclusion than in implementing it. Recommends actions rural superintendents might take. (TD) EJ607012

Horn, J. (1998). Stakeholders' Evaluation of Rural/Small Schools. The Rural educator, 20(1), 5.

Horn, J. G. (1991). Rural/Small School Effectiveness as Perceived by Stakeholders. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 12, 3, 21-26 Spr 1991. Identified characteristics perceived by students, educators, school board members, and the community to be the most important indicators of school quality in small school districts in Kansas. Determined the degree to which characteristics are present in selected small and rural schools. Respondents perceived their schools positively on the variables selected as important. (KS) EJ429112

Howley, C. B., & Smith, C. R. P. L. (2000). An Agenda for Studying Rural School Busing. Researchers and other persons interested in promoting research about rural school busing met in Columbus, Ohio, in December 1998. Drawing on that meeting and the rural school literature, this report describes why school transportation is an important issue nationwide, explains the lack of research on rural school busing, proposes a research agenda, and recommends ways to use the agenda to foster research on the topic. School busing is relevant to nearly all school districts because of its theoretical relationship to the generic culture of U.S. schooling and its practical (but unknown) impacts on family life and school participation and on student achievement. A discussion of 20th-century school consolidation and professionalization trends and of the dominant, functionalist framework for educational research suggests that the functionalist tradition privileges some topics of research over others. In particular, the concerns of rural families and communities about busing, often raised in protest to long bus rides and rural school closures, were in opposition to prevailing views of professionals and functionalist researchers and, therefore, unlikely to provoke much research interest. A research agenda is outlined in detail. Its categories (all in relation to rural school busing) are history, politics, spatial distribution of schools, consolidation, social and cultural circumstances, outcomes or correlates of schooling, children's health and safety, finance, and alternatives to current circumstances. Appendices include "Long Rides, Tough Hides: Enduring Long School Bus Rides" (Belle Zars) and background on the collaboration between AEL and the Rural School and Community Trust Policy Program. (Contains 40 references.) (SV) ED444810

Howley, C., & Theobald, P. (1996). "The Life and Death of a Rural American High School: Farewell Little Kanawha" (Alan DeYoung). Book Review. Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 12, 1, 44-49 Spr 1996. Reviews a book that documents the circumstances surrounding the closure of a small, rural West Virginia high school. The book's strength derives largely from its crossing of disciplinary borders to address social, political, and economic factors that have influenced changing educational values and the trend toward consolidation in rural West Virginia. (LP) EJ529920

Huang, G. G. ([1996). Effect of High School Programs on Out-Migration of Rural Youth. Rural-to-urban migration of educated rural youth is a factor leading to economic marginality and community decline in rural America. This paper examines the extent to which high school curriculum contributes to the postschool outmigration of high school graduates, particularly those in rural areas. The study analyzed data from a national longitudinal survey, High School and Beyond, using two-level logit models for generating reliable estimates of organizational effects on individual behavior. The final sample included 16,492 students from 875 schools who were seniors in 1980 or 1982 and who participated in the 1986 follow-up survey. Controlling for local labor market conditions and student socioeconomic and demographic background, analyses revealed that: (1) a school's average outmigration is positively related to the school's emphasis on academic programs and negatively related to emphasis on vocational programs; (2) the probability of student outmigration is positively related to students' academic coursework and negatively related to students' vocational coursework; (3) these relationships hold in the subsample of youth who did not attend college in the 4 years after high school completion, as well as in the total sample; and (4) overall, curriculum effects did not differ between rural schools and those elsewhere. The implementation of two-level logit models through the software MLn and related statistical issues are addressed. Contains 33 references. (SV) ED405151

Huang, G. G., Weng, S., Zhang, F., & Cohen, M. P. (1997). Outmigration among Rural High School Graduates: The Effect of Academic and Vocational Programs. Paper presented at the Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 19, 4 p360-72 Win 1997. Data from the High School and Beyond Study (National Center for Education Statistics) are used to examine the post-school outmigration of students from rural areas in connection with student coursework and curriculum program enrollment (school level). Results show a connection between outmigration and high academic achievement and the schools' emphasis on academic curriculum. (SLD) EJ563455

Hughes, M. F. (1998). Financing Facilities in Rural School Districts., Paper presented at the Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities (Kansas City, MO, May 1-2, 1998). Page Length: 34. While education is an important legal function of state government, a major portion of school facility funding is still at the local level, and the quality of school buildings varies across most states. This paper addresses how rural school facilities are financed. It provides an overview of school facilities funding in the United States as summarized by the literature, a mini study of school facilities funding in Arkansas, and comments from practitioners and researchers on the issues presented. It argues that the same equity issues raised on expenditure per pupils and equal educational opportunity should be raised in school facility funding too; and educational quality, including that of school facilities, should not rely on the wealth of the local community. Arkansas, one state that does depend on local wealth for the quality of school buildings, is examined in terms of its great diversity between quality and ability to support school facilities. The paper explains the multiple school funding problems faced by Arkansas' rural, small school districts, such as district size and the size of a supportive tax base and how these problems contribute to a wide range of allowable amounts of state aid available to rural versus urban school districts, thus creating vast quality differences in school facilities. (GR) ED429427

Hughes, M. F. (2000). Financing Facilities in Rural School Districts: Variations among the States and the Case of Arkansas., Chapter 2 in: Improving Rural School Facilities: Design, Construction, Finance, and Public Support; see RC 022 640. Page Length: 20. This chapter examines the main challenges that rural school districts face in school facilities funding and illustrates these problems with a case study of Arkansas. Most rural school districts serve only a small number of students, which tends to limit the funds available for construction or renovation. In addition, rural districts are likely to have lower assessed property values and lower resident ability to support local taxes. In Arkansas, the per-student amount that a district could borrow for school facilities funding was three times larger for the state's largest school district than the smallest school district. The smallest district had 78 percent of its students participating in the free and reduced lunch program, an indication of resident inability to support additional taxes. The total borrowing power of districts ranged from $531,000 to $363 million. When facilities funding is based on local property wealth and local ability to pay, great inequities occur. In 1994, 15 states provided no state school facilities funding, and 8 of those states measured local fiscal capacity by assessed property valuations. Either state or federal aid would help remedy inequities in facilities funding. Six data tables provide details on the states' facilities funding and classification of local fiscal capacity and on Arkansas districts' borrowing power by size, rurality, and poverty rate. (SV) ED445857

Hull, J. L. (Sep 1994). School-to-Life Planning: Broadening Rural Students' Horizons., 53p. This report addresses issues related to the responsibility of public schools to prepare rural youth for life choices about careers, postsecondary education, and place of residence. A synthesis of current research literature, as well as the perceptions of rural educators and policymakers in the Northwest, explore some potential resolutions to the dilemmas. Background information is provided on the advantages and disadvantages of living in rural areas; the rural migration dilemma; rural student, parent, and counselor aspirations; demographic changes and their impact; financial and economic trends; and the importance of community ties to rural youth. A discussion of the role of rural schools focuses on their need to prepare students adequately both for being contributing citizens in their own communities and for leaving if they desire; schools must enable students to recognize that they have choices and empower them to make informed decisions. Special attention is directed towards the importance of developing practical programs for non-college-bound students. The report concludes that in rural areas, school issues are community issues, and urges that all components of the community be involved in adapting rural education systems to the changes occurring throughout the United States. An appendix delineates a range of community-based activities derived from rural education forums held in the northwestern United States. Contains 43 references. (RAH) ED377999

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_____. (2001). What's up with rural schools? Nea Today, 19(6), 29.

Harmon, H. (1998). Building School-to-Work Systems in Rural America. ERIC Digest. This digest briefly describes key components for building a local school-to- work (STW) partnership and discusses the rural context for implementing such an initiative. The School-To-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 established a national framework for each state to create STW systems that are part of comprehensive education reform, are integrated with systems developed under Goals 2000, and offer opportunities for all students to earn portable credentials in a performance-based education and training program. States applying for federal incentive implementation grants must include plans to serve rural communities and to allocate subgrants to local STW partnerships. Local partnerships consisting of employers; educators; students; and representatives of local education agencies, postsecondary institutions, and labor organizations must implement programs that provide work-based learning, school-based career learning, and connecting activities. The context of rural STW programs may include persistent poverty, informal arrangements between employer and employees, remote location, or dependency on a single industry. Some parents and community leaders fear that STW programs will actually undermine local economic development by training students to leave their communities. However, the ultimate success of STW partnerships may be in giving rural students a better understanding of the rural place in which they live, and may someday work. (Contains 14 references.) (SV) ED418832 Available from: ERIC/CRESS, P.O. Box 1348, Charleston, WV 25325-1348 (free).

Harmon, H. L. (2000). Linking School-to-Work Transition and Rural Development Strategies., Paper presented at the Kentucky School-to-Work Sustainability Institute (Louisville, KY, February 22-23, 2000). Page Length: 10. The School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 established a national framework to guide the development of statewide school-to-work (STW) opportunities systems in each state. Governors apply to the National School-to-Work Office for 5-year federal implementation grants. Early research on implementation of STW in rural areas suggests that policymakers should be wary of prescriptive formulas and formats, as they are often based on the deficit model approach and are likely to provoke local opposition. Each community is unique. Local partnerships in high-poverty urban and rural areas may also apply for federal implementation grants. These local partnerships create the opportunity to link STW to rural development strategies in particular rural areas. However, little information on such linkages exists. Strategies for linking STW and economic development include coordinating services with economic development organizations, encouraging the formation of groups of businesses with common training needs, targeting high-growth industries, developing skills standards to better match what students are taught and what the workplace demands, and broadening economic opportunity by working with others. A focus on building comprehensive community-wide systems that incorporate education, economic development, and employment and training expands possibilities for linking STW and rural development strategies. (TD) ED447974

Harris, L. B. (Feb 1992). Developing School/College Partnerships in Rural Regions. A Philosophical Rationale., 19pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (San Antonio, TX, February 25-28, 1992). The simultaneous restructuring of K-12 schools and teacher education programs located in rural regions is of primary importance. This paper explores the philosophical and theoretical rationales for the establishment of partnerships between a regional institution of higher education (IHE) and the local schools in the rural region served by the IHE. The rationales for the development of partnerships are centered on the need for changing school practices based on the needs of society for the future and on several of John Goodlad's Postulates for teacher preparation. In addition to reviewing eight of Goodlad's postulates, the paper reviews U.S. government publications and Business Roundtable on the skills and attitudes required because of societal change. The paper also describes a partnership between Wayne State College (Nebraska), two educational service units, and 37 public school districts. (Author/IAH) ED342742

Harris, M. F., & Harris, R. C. (1992). Glasser Comes to a Rural School. Paper presented at the Educational Leadership, 50, 3, 18-21 Nov 1992. In its quest for quality, a rural Utah elementary school is making thoughtful improvements in every area of the school's operations. Progress is being made in faculty communication, group instruction, curriculum integration, student assessment (through self-evaluation), and democratic discipline and problem solving. Partnership with Brigham Young University facilitates the process. (MLH) EJ454321

Harshman, M. (1996). Review of "The Life and Death of a Rural American High School: Farewell Little Kanawha," by Alan J. DeYoung. Paper presented at the Appalachian Journal, 23, 2, 208-17 Win 1996. Reviews DeYoung's book, which depicts the social life of a small rural school and its community, and the particular social, political, and economic circumstances that led to the school's closure. Suggests that the book contains much useful material for those facing a consolidation battle, but that it omits important "instrumental" reasons for preserving small schools. (SV) EJ518747

Hartshorn, R. L., & Nelson, R. L. (Mar 1990). Hands-On Science Instruction in the Rural Elementary School: A Strategy To Reduce the High School Dropout Rate., 16pp. Paper presented at the Rural Education Symposium of the American Council on Rural Special Education and the National Rural and Small Schools Consortium (Tucson, AZ, March 18-22, 1990). A growing body of evidence indicates that activity-based approaches to teaching science are more effective than traditional methods in producing a wide range of desirable student outcomes at all grade levels. The Elementary Science Education Institute (ESEI) was designed to train elementary science teachers in the use of hands-on science methodology. From 1987 to 1989, 27 teams of 4 educators each completed 240 hours of instruction at the University of Tennessee at Martin, followed by a year-long program of science education improvement at their schools. Data on content knowledge and attitudes were collected from 902 students of teachers in the first cycle of training and a comparison group of students whose teachers did not participate in training. After one year of instruction, ESEI students outperformed controls on content knowledge for Grades 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, although fifth grade differences were not significant. For first and second grades, attitudes toward science instruction (as measured by forced-choice questions) improved during the year among ESEI students but became more negative among controls. However, attitudes indicated by open-ended affective questions became more negative for both groups. In Grades 4-6, while attitudes on both types of questions became more negative for both groups, ESEI students had better attitudes than the comparison group in fourth and sixth grade, and controls had better attitudes in fifth grade. (SV) ED337328

Hayward, K. S., & Pehrsson, D. E. (1 September 2000). Interdisciplinary Action Supporting Sexual Assault Prevention Efforts in Rural Elementary Schools. Journal of Community Health Nursing, 17(3), 141-150(110). The purpose of this study1 was to evaluate if knowledge is gained by rural, elementary school-aged children of sexual assault prevention concepts following implementation of an interdisciplinary prevention program. Rural children (N = 294 pretest and N = 301 posttest) were tested before and after delivery of a theater program developed for teaching sexual assault prevention concepts. The program was delivered to children enrolled in the 3rd and 4th grades of 3 rural elementary schools. Analysis of variance results indicate an increase in knowledge gained in all age groups. Significant difference in knowledge gained occurred in concept areas related to touch by authority figures, secrets, uncomfortable touch by individuals known to them, strangers, and boys' risk of abuse. Results support the need for ongoing interdisciplinary efforts to teach children sexual assault prevention concepts.

Hazi, H. M. (1994). School Reform in a Rural State: A West Virginia Retrospective and Prospective. Paper presented at the International Journal of Educational Reform, 3, 1, 4-14 Jan 1994. Summarizes and critiques West Virginia educational reforms during the past decade, highlighting the state's rural character, a brief history of the reform catalyst (Pauley v. Bailey), recent reform activity, and some cautiously optimistic predictions. The state's 1982 Master Plan for education has been replaced by Policy 2000, whose six goals approximate America 2000's. Financial problems cloud future plans. (MLH) EJ477534

Hazi, H. M. (1998). The Role of Supervisors in Rural School Reform., 61pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Diego, CA, April 13-17, 1998). This paper reports the perspectives of county-level supervisors who have been important in advancing state-mandated school reforms in West Virginia. A chronological background on West Virginia school reform from 1982 through 1997 covers legislation related to the "Recht Decision," state reform initiatives, creation of the School Building Authority, and rural opposition to school consolidation. County financial disparities and accreditation indicators are reviewed. The qualitative research was done in two parts: a survey of county-level supervisors in the 55 counties (with 47 respondents) and interviews with 20 county-level supervisors. Three types of themes are reported: rural, school reform, and central office supervision. The rural themes include absence of a "rural lens" in administrator thinking, aversion to using the term "rural," and cultural resistance to change. School reform themes include the highly centralized and state-controlled curriculum; three eras of reform (school effectiveness, empowerment, and data obsession); local reform successes (staff development); supervisor assertiveness toward reform; "local fit" of reforms; windows of opportunity for change (school board elections, grant funding cycles, staff changes); reform challenges (test score pressures, high expectations, teacher morale, curriculum designed to "export" students, problematic school-community relations); scarcity of resources; and staff recruitment. Central office supervisor themes include a portrayal of supervisors as being survivors of downsizing, being overworked, and using staff development and grant writing as supervisory tools; the absence of curriculum development as a tool for change; school reform as central to the supervisory role; and the consequences of site-based management. Appendixes contain details of the research design, the survey questionnaire, and summary of survey results. (Contains 83 references.) (SAS) ED422135

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Irby, B. J., & Brown, G. (Mar 1994). Establishing Partnerships among Women Executives in Rural School Districts., 6pp. In: Montgomery, Diane, Ed. Rural Partnerships: Working Together. Proceedings of the Annual National Conference of the American Council on Rural Special Education (ACRES) (14th, Austin, Texas, March 23-26, 1994); see RC 019 557. Career attitudes, fears, and misconceptions were examined among 44 participants in a course designed to promote educational leadership skills among female administrators. About half of the participants surveyed worked at rural sites. Questions were related to barriers women face in attaining administrative jobs, suggestions for overcoming barriers, fears that women face related to becoming an administrator, plans for overcoming fears, networking, and mentoring. Results of questionnaires were analyzed in the context of existing literature on women in leadership roles. Almost all respondents indicated negative attitudes toward their own abilities and a lack of confidence that they could do the job successfully. Eighty percent of the women indicated misconceptions concerning career advancement techniques. Comments reflected a lack of awareness of career patterns of successful women and a narrow focus on obtaining more credentials, serving on more committees, and working harder to advance in their careers. All of the respondents viewed networking as critical to career advancement, and 66 percent indicated that they were members of a networking group. However, when asked to describe their specific networking group, 93 percent described groups and experiences that are not typical of networking related to career advancement. The survey establishes the need for developing a training course to promote effective educational leadership skills among women administrators. (LP) ED369628

Irwin, L. (1999). Do Rural and Urban Elementary Teachers Differ in Their Attitudes Toward Multicultural Education in Elementary Schools? Contemporary education, 70(3), 38.

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Jaquart, M., Newlin, J. T., Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory., & United States. Office of Educational Research and Improvement. Rural school source book: exemplary programs, practices and resources for rural educators. Aurora, Colo.: Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory [1988]. Ed 1.310/2:300156

Jaramillo, G. (2000). The Charter School Movement in Support of Rural Educational Reform: A History of Our Struggle for Local Autonomy. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 21, 2, 28-32 Win 1999-2000. Describes how two rural Colorado communities, threatened by the loss of their elementary schools, established a charter school based in two existing facilities. Discusses the benefits of local autonomy, the value of networking with other rural charter schools, the role of the community in school innovations, and emphases on staff development and school program evaluation. (SV) EJ600069

Jensen, D. (1998). Applications of Technology in Rural School Facilities., 16pp. Paper presented at the Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities (Kansas City, MO, May 1-2, 1998). Rural schools often have difficulty in developing and implementing a 21st century, K-12 technology plan. This report describes one rural school district's (Wayne, Nebraska) successful efforts at technology integration. It discusses the efforts of installing 25 networked computers in the local high school, linking buildings with fiber-optic cables, automating the middle school library, and creating a distance education program by upgrading software and hardware to link the schools to the community via the Internet. The report reveals that rural schools can succeed in integrating technology into the curriculum, but it takes a united effort combined with the rural districts' willingness to seek help from regional and state agencies. (GR) ED425629 You may be able to order this document from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service.

Jensen, D. (2000). Creating Technology Infrastructures in a Rural School District: A Partnership Approach., Chapter 4 in: Improving Rural School Facilities: Design, Construction, Finance, and Public Support; see RC 022 640. Page Length: 14. Rural schools face significant challenges in upgrading their technology infrastructures. Rural school districts tend to have older school buildings that have multiple problems and lack climate control, adequate space, and necessary wiring. In rural districts, it may be difficult to find the leadership and expertise needed to provide professional development, create an appropriate technology plan, and manage and maintain building and system infrastructures. In addition, rural districts may not have local companies available or willing to partner with schools in technology projects, and staff members may not have the time or experience to write grant applications for technology development. Wayne (Nebraska) Community School District overcame these difficulties through a collaboration with Wayne State College, the chamber of commerce and city council, local businesses, federal and state agencies, and the students themselves. In 1992, a districtwide committee of diverse stakeholders developed goals and identified needs for a comprehensive technology plan. During the plan's implementation, the nearby college was a constant resource. Stages in the plan included installation of a computer lab, distance education activities, expansion of technology infrastructure with a corporate grant, and development of a communitywide computer network. Lessons learned from the Wayne experience concern the needs for careful planning, continual training of staff and students, and a vision for the future. (SV) ED445859

Johns, S., Kilpatrick, S., Falk, I., & Mulford, B. (2000). School Contribution to Rural Communities: Leadership Issues. CRLRA Discussion Paper Series. A case study exploring the relationship between local leadership and the school-community partnership was conducted in a small, isolated Australian mining town. Data were generated from written materials such as the local newspaper and interviews with 8 school staff members and 11 community members involved with the schools or representing business, industry, and state and local government interests in the town. The major school-based interactions with the community were fundraising activities, sporting activities, cultural activities, and informal and formal community involvement in school operations and management. The study identified indicators of the effectiveness of school-community partnerships: a strong commitment to the partnership from school and community leaders; a high level of cohesiveness within the schools; wide-ranging and ongoing involvement by community members in all aspects of the school's organization and management; wide-ranging and ongoing involvement of students and school staff in community activities; and a strong sense of ownership of the school by the community. Findings indicate that leadership that enhances the school-community partnership actively engages in relationship building; facilitates two-way communication; strongly supports the involvement of varied community members in ongoing activities, as well as planning and decision making; and supports both a philosophy and practice of shared leadership. (Contains 49 references.) (TD) ED447975

Johnson, J. (1992). Reform in Mathematics Education: What's a Rural or Small School to Do? Paper presented at the Journal of Rural and Small Schools, 5, 2, 3-8 1992. Addresses the national goal for U.S. students to be first in the world in mathematics and science achievement by the year 2000. Proposes an eight-point action agenda for mathematics reform for rural and small schools. Actions involve (1) educating teachers and administrators; (2) keeping parents and community informed; (3) adopting new text and assessment materials. (KS) EJ444990

Johnson, M. J., & Vaughan, S. (Apr 1992). Empowering Teachers through Technology: Developing the Rural School of the 21st Century., 34pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Francisco, CA, April 20-24, 1992). This paper describes Colton School District's (Washington) project of the Rural School of the 21st Century. The goals of the 6-year project, initiated in 1988, were to incorporate technology into all aspects of education and to use technology in restructuring the school system. The Colton School District consists of 184 students in a single K-12 building. Empowering or educating teachers with new technology also meant empowering the school board members, parents, patrons, and senior citizens; empowerment and development activities for each group are described. Specific results of the project evaluation for 1992 are included. This report concludes that: (1) teacher attitudes improved toward the use of technology and toward the teaching profession; (2) student achievement increased as measured by the number of books and reference materials checked out by students from the library and an increase in the quality of student writing; (3) technology expanded course offerings of the school; (4) empowerment increased communication between staff, parents, school board members and other groups; (5) through the use of technology and the resulting curricular changes a life-long learning culture was established in the school; (6) additional, compensated professional development time for teachers was established; (7) start-up costs for technological innovation were considered minimal; (8) parent and patron attitudes about the school improved; and (9) teachers thought technological innovation had significantly changed the curriculum, teaching methodologies, and the roles between teachers and students. (28 references) (LP) ED347039

Johnson, M. N. (12 Aug 1994). School Leaders and the Renewal of Rural Community: Dare the Schools Save an Old Social Order?, 22pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Council of Professors of Educational Administration (Indian Wells, CA, August 1994). Rural school and community renewal efforts may depend upon a reconceptualization of our democratic institutions and practices. During at least the last 130 years, we have come to judge our democratic institutions on the basis of whether they deliver the goods rather than develop our people. In the name of progress, efficiency, higher standards of living, and equal opportunity, our leaders have been willing to do nearly anything, and we have been willing to overlook nearly anything, so long as the goods have been delivered. Modern commercial practices exploit people and places in the pursuit of maximized profits. Having plundered the countryside and moved virtually the entire citizenry into the urban economy, multinational corporations are now beyond the control of any government and are moving toward the exploitation of the whole world. An alternative view of a good society is based on a conception of democracy in which human development rather than efficiency is the ultimate standard for evaluating systems of governance. As a foundation for rural renewal, this view acknowledges the interdependence of persons grounded in their particular place on earth. The purpose of education, then, is to learn to live in a place well, and educational practices for rural renewal focus on the local context, students' entrepreneurial skills, and community development. Examples of rural schools implementing these changes include Nebraska's Schools at the Center Initiative, Alabama's Program for Rural Services and Research, South Dakota Black Hills Special Services Cooperative, and South Dakota State University's Rural School and Community Renewal Program. (SV) ED375997

Jones, E. D., & Southern, W. T. (1992). Programming, Grouping, and Acceleration in Rural School Districts: A Survey of Attitudes and Practices. Paper presented at the Special Issue: Challenging the Gifted: Grouping and Acceleration. Interviews with the coordinators of 37 gifted education programs (20 rural and 17 urban) indicated that rural school districts are less likely to use ability grouping or academic acceleration and are more likely to use sporadic extracurricular activities. An earlier survey of 171 teachers also found fewer program options in rural areas. (DB) EJ450028

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Kannapel, P. J., & And, O. (1995). Six Heads Are Better than One? School-Based Decision Making in Rural Kentucky. Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 11, 1, 15-23 Spr 1995. A 3-year examination of school-based decision-making (SBDM) councils in four rural Kentucky school districts revealed that, similar to findings in urban and suburban settings, SBDM councils in rural schools experienced difficulties in achieving true shared decision making. Decisions regarding hiring and budget management were most likely to lead to school improvement. (Author/LP) EJ510712

Kannapel, P. J., & And, O. (8 Apr 1994). School-Based Decision Making in Rural Kentucky Schools: Interim Findings of a Five-Year, Longitudinal Study., 19pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (New Orleans, LA, April 8, 1994). An ongoing 5-year study of Kentucky Education Reform Act of 1990 (KERA) implementation in four rural Kentucky school districts explores the establishment of school-based decision making (SBDM) in the 20 schools in the districts. In the 3 years since KERA took effect, 10 of the 20 schools have adopted SBDM. The paper focuses primarily on the seven schools that began formal implementation in 1991- 92. Only one of the seven school councils studied practiced balanced decision making where all members (principal, teachers, and parents) participated as equals in discussion and decisions. In three councils, teachers and principals dominated decision making, although parents at two of these schools have begun to play a stronger role. The remaining three councils served as advisory groups to the principal and did not appear to be moving toward broader participation in decision making. Councils that practiced some level of shared decision making made key decisions in such areas as budgeting, scheduling, and to some extent, curriculum. All councils, regardless of their decision-making mode, participated in decisions about personnel and, to some extent, discipline. Beyond making decisions in these two areas, councils that played an advisory role to the principal mostly rubber-stamped decisions made by the principal or teacher committees. Factors that contributed to effective SBDM implementation were the principal's support and facilitation of SBDM, leadership by other council members, attentiveness to the need for parent involvement, and council training. The reverse of these impeded implementation. (KS) ED371932

Kannapel, P. J., & DeYoung, A. J. (1999). The Rural School Problem in 1999: A Review and Critique of the Literature. Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 15, 2, 67-79 Fall 1999. Reviews key literature on rural education, 1974-98. Describes characteristics of rural schools and communities. Discusses the results of 100 years of efforts to urbanize and homogenize rural schools, and the question of whose interests should be served by rural schools. Examines ideas about the nature of appropriate rural school improvement, and describes exemplary projects. Contains 69 references. (Author/SV) EJ600047

Karim, G. P., Ed., & Weate, N. J., Ed. (1994). Toward the 21st Century: A Rural Education Anthology. Rural School Development Outreach Project. Volume 1., 140pp. For selected individual articles, see RC 020 798-802. This anthology focuses on rural education improvement that will prepare students for the 21st century. Articles address issues related to school funding, educational technology, curriculum offerings, state and federal policies, the role of rural teachers and administrators in school reform, cultural diversity, and changing socioeconomic factors in rural communities. An introduction by Gordon P. Karim overviews themes of the articles and discusses the role of rural schools in strengthening rural communities. Articles include: (1) "The Rural Context for Education: Adjusting the Images" (Daryl Hobbs); (2) "Rural Education in a Period of Transition: Are the Public Schools Up to the Task?" (Paul Nachtigal); (3) "Looking at Rural Schools and Communities in the 21st Century: The Impact of Changing Demographics and Economics" (James G. Ward); (4) "Better Together: Rural Schools and Rural Communities" (Toni Haas); (5) "The 'New' Federal and State Education Agenda" (E. Robert Stephens); (6) "Small Is Necessary: Strengthening Rural Schools" (Anne C. Lewis); (7) "The Evolution of a Rural Learning Community" (Dennis D. Gooler); (8) "Technology, Television, and an Out-the-Window Rural Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Or How Thoreau Teaches Social Studies, Language Arts, and Science" (Jim Page); (9) "The Changing Educational Needs of the Rural Student" (V. Pauline Hodges); (10) "Natural Metaphors of Change for Sustainable Rural School Communities" (James A. Lewicki); (11) "Why Rural Education Has Not Received Its "Fair Share" of the Fundingand What To Do about It" (Jonathan Sher); (12) "'At-Risk' Rural Students Benefit from Integrated Approach" (V. Pauline Hodges); (13) "The Critical Role of Rural Teachers in the Educational Reform Movement" (David Leo-Nyquist); (14) "Preparing Students for the Real World" (John Wilcox); (15) "What Administrators of Smaller Schools Do" (Constance M. Perry, Thomas H. Perry); (16) "Rural School Counseling: Turning Obstacles into Opportunities" (Catherine McConnell); (17) "Affirming Culturally Diverse Students with a Literature of Their Own" (Ginny Carney); and (18) "Reform in Mathematics Education: What's a Rural or Small School To Do?" (Jerry Johnson). (LP) ED401073

Karim, G. P., Weate, N. J., & Educational Resources Information Center (U.S.). (1994). Toward the 21st century Rural School Development Outreach Project. [Oak Brook, IL] [Washington, DC]: Ncrel ; U.S. Dept. of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement Educational Resources Information Center. Ed 1.310/2:401073

Keaster, R. D., & And, O. (1996). The HIV/AIDS Virus: Rural School Administrators' Knowledge and Attitudes. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 17, 2, 1-5,36 Win 199 1996. Survey of 46 rural Louisiana school administrators revealed a lack of basic knowledge about many aspects of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which probably contributed to negative attitudes toward persons with HIV/AIDS. Administrators wanted more knowledge in this area and identified a need for policies and guidelines at the local level. (Author/TD) EJ523552

Kelker, K. (1998). Resolving Conflicts in Rural Schools. Rural special education quarterly, 17(3/4), 18.

Killkirk, K., Chang, B., & Villet, C. (1998). Supporting Ongoing Professional Learning in Rural Schools. The Rural educator, 19(3), 20.

Kingery, P. M., & And, O. (1996). A Profile of Rural Texas Adolescents Who Carry Handguns to School. Paper presented at the Journal of School Health, 66, 1, 18-22 Jan 1996. Surveys of 8th and 10th graders regarding carrying weapons to school and associated risk factors compared those who carried guns with those who did not. Results found an enormous increase in guns at school over seven years. Most students had been crime victims and carried guns out of fear or anger. (SM) EJ525367

Kirkpatrick, M. G. (1917). The rural school from within. Philadelphia, London,: J.B. Lippincott company. Lb1567.k5 379.7 379.173 379.7 k63

Knisley, C. C. (14 Oct 1993). Factors Influencing Rural Vermont Public High School Seniors To Aspire or Not To Aspire to a Four Year College Education. A Research Study., 34pp. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the National Rural Education Association (Burlington, VT, October 14-17, 1993). A survey of 772 high school seniors in 18 economically disadvantaged rural Vermont public high schools examined differences between students who planned to attend a 4-year college or university and those who did not. The survey instrument consisted of 105 statements pertaining to personal background and demographic data, locus of control, community-related factors, and school-related factors. Most respondents were females between 17 and 18 years of age, who reported their family income to be above $20,000, received mostly As and Bs in school, and reported that their parents had a high school education or above. Half reported being in the college preparatory academic track while 29 percent reported being in the general or vocational track. Significant differences between groups were found for 64 of 105 variables. Students aspiring to a 4-year college education perceived their high school experience in a more positive and different manner than their similar-status peers who did not so aspire. Students aspiring to attend college felt that a college education was essential for a satisfying career, that they had control over their level of success, that their community provided few career opportunities, and that their school experiences motivated them to continue learning. Includes numerous data tables and the survey instrument. (LP) ED364377

Kroger, R. (2000). School at the Center in Rural Nebraska. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 21, 2, 22-24 Win 1999-2000. In Big Springs, Nebraska, school-based projects aim to increase students' knowledge of and connection to their community. Projects have included making and selling detailed miniature reproductions of local buildings, documenting local history, helping to renovate a historic hotel, reenacting a pioneer Christmas celebration, and researching and renovating the natural spring for which the town was named. (SV) EJ600067

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Lam, Y. L. J., & Cormier, J. (1998). Cycle and Sources of Rural School Administrators' Stress: Some Empirical Evidence of Role Transformation. Paper presented at the Journal of Educational Administration and Foundations, v13, 1, 52-66 Jul 1998. A study examined principals' working conditions to identify key areas of job-related stress. Documentation of stressful incidents reported by five rural principals indicated that external- and internal-management sources of stress were equally frequent. The cycle of stressful experiences was more intense than a decade ago. Leadership transformation can reduce stress when work roles are being continually modified. (37 references) (MLH) EJ571780

Leach, E. L. (13 Oct 1991). Rural School Administrators for a New Age., 12pp. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the National Rural Education Association (83rd, Jackson, MS, October 10-14, 1991). "Issues in Administering Rural Schools" is a graduate level course for prospective school administrators at St. Cloud State University (Minnesota). The course is available at several remote sites through two-way interactive television. Because a large proportion of schools in Minnesota and the nation are rural, administering rural schools is worthy of study by students of school administration whether or not they plan to be rural educators. The course focuses on: (1) typology and characteristics of rural schools; (2) the geographic, economic, social, and political contexts in which rural education occurs; (3) administrative tasks and functions in rural school districts; (4) opportunities and problems associated with providing leadership in rural school settings; and (5) sources of information on rural education. Course organization entails weekly required readings, oral presentations, statistical comparisons of school districts, and guest speakers. The term project is a cooperative research project, such as one in which students collected data from practicing superintendents on personal and professional issues in rural school administration. This paper includes interview questions and student responses, learner outcomes reported by students and organized by course objective, and student comments on the course. (SV) ED339565

Lee, S., & Milburn, C. (1994). Implementing Middle School Concepts in Rural Areas: Problems and Solutions. Paper presented at the Middle School Journal, 26, 1, 7-11 Sep 1994. A survey of middle-level teachers in rural and remote South Dakota schools found that teachers generally supported middle-school concepts but felt professionally isolated and limited by scarce resources. Principals can help by providing inservice education and staff development, alternative scheduling for increased collaboration, and encouragement for change. (MLH) EJ490867

Lee-Grigg, R. A. (1995). The Belles of Saint Mary's: A Rural Alternative School for Teenage Mothers. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 17, 1, 32-36 Fall 1995. Proposed welfare reform could be detrimental to the education and employment opportunities of poor rural women and children. Describes the educational experiences of women who have attended the Low Country Human Development Center (LCHDC) (South Carolina). For the past 20 years, the LCHDC has provided pregnant teenagers with a high school education combined with parenting skills. (LP) EJ518744

Legutko, R. S. (1998). Family Effect on Rural High School Students'. Postsecondary Decisions. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 20, 2, 11-14 Win 1998. A survey of 285 high school seniors in six rural Pennsylvania schools found that student plans to attend postsecondary education were strongly influenced by parents' educational attainment and somewhat influenced by sibling educational attainment. Family financial situation was not a factor in student choice of postsecondary educational options. (TD) EJ582502

Leisey, R. M., & And, O. ([1990). The Consolidation of a Rural School District: A Case Study., 61pp. Faint type throughout. The Coffee County (Georgia) Board of Education voted to consolidate Nicholls and Broxton High Schools with Coffee High School. This case study analyzes the issues of school consolidation, benefits to students and financial implications through sociological and political science perspectives. Data were collected by personal interview, document analysis, and a questionnaire survey. Three major conclusions were reached. From the political science (financial) point of view, the decision to consolidate was in the best interest of the citizens of Coffee County because: (1) there were three high schools, but the available state money was only enough to support one; (2) the county supported 50 teachers with local funds, to keep 2 small high schools functional; and (3) the current school millage was 20 mills, which is the maximum allowed by law. From the political science (power) perspective, the state's Quality Basic Education Act placed financial pressure on systems to consolidate by granting "reward" money. While the local board of education had the power to vote on the decision, citizens and students appeared powerless. From the sociological perspective, the smaller schools will lose their identity and community spirit as a result of consolidation; however, curriculum advantages will be gained. Further research should address the effects of consolidation on communities and businesses, student relationships in the new schools, and the effectiveness of large versus small schools. (KS) ED336216

Lemke, J. C. (Mar 1994). Teacher Induction in Rural and Small School Districts., 7pp. In: Montgomery, Diane, Ed. Rural Partnerships: Working Together. Proceedings of the Annual National Conference of the American Council on Rural Special Education (ACRES) (14th, Austin, Texas, March 23-26, 1994); see RC 019 557. The literature shows clearly that rural administrators find it extremely difficult to locate and hire qualified teachers who fit in with the school and community and will stay in the job. The "ideal" rural teacher is certified to teach more than one subject or grade level, can teach students with a wide range of abilities in the same classroom, is prepared to supervise extracurricular activities, and can adjust to the community. One successful recruitment strategy involves stressing the benefits of working in rural and small schools, such as small class size, personal relationships with students, individualized instruction, greater student and parent participation, and greater teacher impact on decision making. Most rural teachers were raised close to where they now teach. Various "grow-your-own" strategies focus on offering incentives to local potential teachers to assist them in obtaining the needed education and training. For example, Future Teachers of America clubs encourage students to consider returning to their home communities once they have received their credentials. Teacher induction in rural and small schools poses particular problems as the new teacher must become acquainted with the community as well as the school. Strategies for successful teacher induction include carefully selected initial assignments, clear goals and feedback, an encouraging and nonthreatening environment, and opportunities to interact with experienced colleagues and parents. Collegial mentoring arrangements, separate from teacher evaluation, can be crucial in helping new teachers through the induction period. Various strategies for retaining qualified rural teachers are listed. (Contains 13 references.) (SV) ED369589

Liddell, C., Lycett, J., & Rae, G. (1 June 1997). Getting through Grade 2: Predicting Children's Early School Achievement in Rural South African Schools. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 21(2), 331-348(318). Children in the second-grade classrooms of three rural schools (n = 150) completed a variety of psychometric and curriculum-based tests, and were rated by their teachers and parents on dimensions of their everyday behaviour; demographic data (e.g. socioeconomic status, presence of mother in the home) and biographical information (e.g. gender, age, birth order) were also collected for each child. Some of these data (e.g. child's age and gender) were more cost-efficient to collect than others (e.g. parent ratings). Measures were evaluated in terms of their salience for constructing a multivariate model that would predict subsequent grade 2 outcome, with the most cost-effective variables being inserted first. In this way, both the cost-efficiency and predictive power of independent variables (IVs) were taken into consideration when attempting to build a predictive model. A model containing three IVs (scores on curriculum-based tests, teacher ratings of children's attention span, and teacher ratings of helpfulness) ultimately predicted 51% of the variance in grade 2 outcome. These results demonstrate, first, that it is possible to build a relatively strong predictive model of grade 2 outcome, although not based on variables that are cheap and quick to measure. Second, that doing well in grade 2 is not so much a matter of having well-developed, broad-ranging psychometric abilities, but more a matter of mastering elements of the

Liebenstein, A. M. (1998). Conversion of School Buildings in Rural Illinois Communities. Paper presented at the Rural Research Report, 10, 2 Fall 1998 Page Length: 10. The possibility of converting a vacated school building into a useful resource presents a community with an interesting situation. During a 5-year period ending in 1997, over 100 rural Illinois communities encountered this situation. This report explores what happens to vacant school buildings and offers case studies of various re-uses, new ownership, and funding mechanisms. Basic concerns and challenges of the conversion process are whether the school building has value, what type of use is most appropriate, who the developers are, and how the conversion process works. Survey responses from 22 regional offices of education in nonmetropolitan Illinois counties reported 25 closed buildings with 19 converted to other uses. Case studies were developed on the conversion projects identified. School buildings have been converted to housing, commercial purposes, and community centers. Not one of the conversions was reported as a failure. Respondents most frequently defined a successful conversion as filling a need within the community or increasing the local tax base. A comparison to conversions in earlier decades shows that as vacated school buildings are larger now, a more sophisticated conversion process and greater expertise are needed. This increased complexity also requires a public commitment to enabling and supporting conversions until they can become financially self-sufficient. (SV) ED440813

Light, T., Leon, B., Center for Community Development and Design (Colorado Springs Colo.), & University of Colorado at Colorado Springs. (1988). Rural school board redistricting: a model applied to Woodland Park School District RE-2. Colorado Springs, Colo.: Center for Community Development & Design University of Colorado. Uccs6/1.10/26

Linden, M. F. (1992). Attitudes toward Alcohol Use and Abuse in a Rural School., 17pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Southwest Educational Research Association (Houston, TX, January 30-February 1, 1992). This study examined patterns of alcohol consumption by students in a rural Texas high school. Questionnaires and interviews were conducted with students, teachers, and parents. Discussions were conducted and taped during a planned "Alcohol Awareness Week." Teacher and parent responses were sought to questions directed at their feelings about the effects of alcohol on students, families, school, and community. In general, students were found to look upon their drinking as social, tension-reductive, and reflective of the behavior patterns of their parents and extended families, as well as peers. Community law enforcement was described as very lax, allowing the students to have weekend beer bashes regularly. Some students indicated that serious drinkers do exist in the community. The effects of alcohol were profound and negative in the teachers' opinions, affecting the students' discipline, performance in school, self- concept, and discipline both at home and in school. There was general consensus that alcohol has profound effects on families, ranging from divorce, uncomfortable home environment, and alienation, to economic instability. Most of the parents reported that they and their children do not drink at home or away from home, nor do their children drive under the influence of alcohol. However, they indicated that they worry about peer influence leading them to drink. Survey data corresponded closely with the findings of a statewide survey, although alcohol consumption was higher. (LLL) ED341001

Linden, M. F. (1993). Alcohol Use and Abuse in a Rural School. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 14, 3, 1-3 Spr 1993. A survey in a rural Texas school district revealed that as many as 85% of the students in grades 6-12 drink alcohol. Students believed their drinking routines to be normal, whereas teachers and parents felt that prevalent alcohol use and abuse had definite negative effects. (LP) EJ467642

Linden, M. F. ([1993). An Oral Fayette County, Texas Rural School History: Perspectives of a County Superintendent and a Long-Time Teacher., 16pp. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the National Rural Education Association (84th, Traverse City, MI, October 9-13, 1992). This paper represents a brief history of rural education in Fayette County (Texas) from 1918 through 1975. The paper focuses on the personal narratives of Harry Loeb, the last official superintendent of Fayette County and Emma Diedt, a 50-year Fayette County teacher. The narratives describe Fayette County schools, school politics, and the curriculum. Loeb relates the role of politics in the annexation and consolidation of school districts. Annexation was unpopular because the larger district could assume the smaller district without a vote. During this time annexation was common nationwide as school districts adapted to a declining population. Schools increasingly involved the Catholic church and its members as faculty; they also integrated minorities into teacher and student bodies. Diedt describes her education and her experience as a teacher in Fayette County schools. Consolidation and other educational decisions were under the heavy influence of politics. She describes her frustration in maintaining high academic standards when school administrators were emphasizing sports in school. Following the launching of Sputnik in 1957, the new focus in education was on math, science, and foreign language. (LP) ED355076

Litke, C. D. (1996). When Violence Came to Our Rural School. Paper presented at the Educational Leadership, 54, 1, 77-80 Sep 1996. Following a bullying episode at a rural Alberta junior high school, staff created a zero-tolerance policy (of automatic suspensions or expulsions) toward future incidents. Administrators should be proactive in dealing with student violence, use a multifaceted approach, form an advisory program, consider group dynamics, refrain from overphilosophizing, and carefully guard school reputation. (MLH) EJ530639

Livingston, M. J., Slate, J., & Gibbs, A. (1999). Shared Decision-Making: Beliefs and Practices of Rural School Principals. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 21, 1, 20-26 Fall 1999. Interviews with 50 principals from elementary, middle, and high schools in rural Georgia examined the extent of collaborative decision making with teachers. Principals recognized teachers as best able to determine student needs. Teachers had high involvement in selection of instructional materials and development of the school's mission but minimal involvement in staffing and staff development decisions. (Contains 18 references.) (TD) EJ597827

Lowery, S., & Harris, S. (2000). Augmenting a Rural High School Curriculum with Credit at a Community College. Paper presented at the American Secondary Education, 28, 4, 22-26 Sum 2000. Although research increasingly reports benefits for students attending small schools, curriculum diversity is usually a concern for these schools. This paper describes a successful concurrent program involving a small high school in rural Texas and a nearby community college that stresses individualized instruction and compliance with state standards. (Contains 17 references.) (MLH) EJ609586

Ludlow, B. (1998). Preparing Special Education Personnel for Rural Schools: Current Practices and Future Directions. Journal of research in rural education, 14(2), 57.

Ludlow, B. L., & And, O. (1990). Rural School Services for Students with Severe Disabilities: Changes in Personnel and Programs. Paper presented at the Rural Special Education Quarterly, 10, 2, 15-20 Win 1990. Uses data from 1985 and 1988 surveys of 48 rural West Virginia school districts to assess changes in patterns of personnel deployment and program implementation related to students with severe disabilities. Examines staff ratios, certification issues, teacher recruitment and retention problems, service delivery, and service configurations. Contains 18 references. (SV) EJ412223

Luft, V. D. (1993). Teacher Recruitment and Retention Practices in Rural School Districts. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 14, 2, 20-24 Win 199 1993. Among 25 rural school-district administrators surveyed in Nevada and North Dakota, 21 and 10 reported difficulty hiring special education teachers and secondary school teachers, respectively. Respondents listed successful recruitment and retention practices, and suggested ways that university colleges of education could help rural school districts with teacher recruitment. (SV) EJ463080

Luo, J., & Wendel, F. C. (1999). Elementary School Education in Rural China. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 21, 1, 1-7 Fall 1999. Describes the major characteristics of elementary school education in rural China and the problems that confront rural educators. Discusses student- teacher relationship, classroom management strategies, principal and teacher roles, differences between urban and rural education, economic influences on rural education, and challenges for rural educators in China. (Contains 20 references.) (TD) EJ597824

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Manges, C. D., & Wilcox, D. J. (1997). The Role of the Principal in Rural School Reform. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 18, 3, 21-23 Spr 1997. The principal's role in rural school reform is to create a climate for implementing change, to remove barriers to reform, and to establish the need for school improvement. Committing to the reform effort; linking curriculum development to systemic change; and facilitating collaboration among staff, parents, students, and the community are tactics practiced by successful school principals. Contains 23 references. (TD) EJ545106

Mann, G., & And, O. (Nov 1993). Rural Secondary School Science Teachers: What They Need To Be Successful., 18pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association (New Orleans, LA, November 10-12, 1993). Any effort to reform science education in the schools must include input from the nation's science teachers concerning what they need to do in order to improve instruction and student performance. Science teachers in rural schools have many needs that differ from those in more urbanized areas. A survey of science teachers in Arkansas, Illinois, Oklahoma, Kansas, Tennessee, and Texas secured responses from 1,507 teachers, about one third of those surveyed. More than half of teachers in five states were over 40 years old. Over half of teachers in all states had more than 10 years experience, and over 25 percent in five states had more than 20 years experience. In all states except Kansas, the majority held a master's degree or higher. Percentage of respondents teaching in a rural area or small town was 62-89 percent. The majority of teachers in four states had three or more daily class preparations, and 62 percent of Kansas teachers had over four. In four states, over half of respondents reported that their equipment and supplies were nonexistent or barely adequate, over 40 percent had no computers for student use, and 21-34 percent did not have laboratory classes. In all states, science instructional resources were rated as inadequate or poor by 34-63 percent of respondents. With regard to instructional strategies, a large majority used lecture, demonstration, and cooperative learning; 33-53 percent never used peer teaching. Results indicate a widespread need for equipment, supplies, materials, and planning time. Without these things, little science can be done in the classroom. Instead, science as product will be read. (SV) ED366472

McClelland, J. (1997). Knowing and Being Known: Parents' Experiences with Rural Schools. Journal of research in rural education, 13(2), 108.

McConnell, C. (1994). Rural School Counseling: Turning Obstacles into Opportunities., 11pp. In: Toward the 21st Century: A Rural Education Anthology. Rural School Development Outreach Project. Volume 1; see RC 020 797. A counselor at a rural high school in New York reflects on her career and addresses issues facing rural school counselors. She chose a career in school counseling based on her interests in education, community involvement, and adolescents. As the only high school counselor for 280 students, she soon realized that rural youth faced many of the same problems as their urban peers: poverty, a lack of opportunities, and the need for new challenges. Her high visibility as a rural school counselor has enabled her to recognize many problems facing rural communities. Furthermore, the nature of her work allows great flexibility that puts her in an ideal position to initiate change. But, because of the lack of resources and isolation inherent in rural school systems, she has encountered obstacles in problem solving and initiating change. Despite this, there are numerous advantages to being a rural school counselor. For instance, it is easier to meet the needs of students when you know their history and family background. Rural school counselors must handle a variety of responsibilities, including balancing community expectations with community limitations. Rural school counselors must help students become aware of opportunities beyond their community while helping them recognize community strengths. Perhaps the most important responsibility of rural school counselors is to counter district limitations by developing and maximizing resources to meet the needs of students and their families. The most common problems addressed by rural school counselors include low academic achievement, issues of family functioning and cohesion, and the effects of poverty on student development. Rural school counselors may define and strengthen their role through self-evaluation, sharing effective strategies with other counselors, and forming networks to share resources. (LP) ED401078

McCracken, J. D., & Barcinas, J. D. T. ([Apr 1991). High School and Student Characteristics in Rural and Urban Areas of Ohio., 10pp. In: School and Community Influences on Occupational and Educational Plans of Rural Youth. Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, 1991, 43-50; see RC 018 361. This paper examines the relationships between school location (urban versus rural) and students' occupational and educational aspirations. It also explores the relationships between student background factors and location of school. The sample consisted of 529 seniors in the class of 1989 in 10 rural high schools, and 718 seniors in 5 urban high schools. Data were obtained by a questionnaire survey and a review of academic records. Large differences were found between urban and rural school characteristics. Urban schools were larger; had more teachers, administrators, and support staff; and offered more courses and extra- curricular activities. They were also more costly to operate on a per-pupil expenditure basis. Rural students appeared to be fairly homogeneous, while the urban students seemed to have a greater mix of race and cultures. The high school curricula in the urban schools emphasized either academic education or vocational education. Few students were in what might be called a general curriculum. However, one-fourth of the students in the rural schools were enrolled in the general curriculum. Socioeconomic status scores were much lower for families in rural areas than for families in urban areas. Most students planned to advance their education beyond high school. Students from urban and rural areas differed little in their levels of occupational aspirations; however, students in rural areas have lower income expectations. It is recommended that the positive features of rural and urban schools be combined. (KS) ED338456

McCracken, J. D., & Peasley, D. D. (Mar 1995). Rural Ohio School Expenditure and Student Achievement. Special Circular 147., 22p. Four studies examined financial and achievement issues in rural Ohio school districts. Based on both county population and location relative to a metropolitan statistical area, schools were assigned to five location categories: rural, semirural, rural/suburban, suburban, and urban. Study 1 examined financial characteristics of the 73 rural Ohio districts and found that per-pupil expenditures ranged from $2300 to $3500, with a median of $2665, and were a function of both financial effort and financial ability. Study 2, involving all 612 Ohio districts, found that rural/suburban schools had the highest level of student achievement; urban and suburban districts had a greater capacity to generate revenue and expended more financial effort to support schools than did the other three categories; and school location was unrelated to student achievement when financial ability and financial effort variables were controlled. Study 3 looked at standardized test scores for grades 4-9 and found that rural/suburban and urban schools had the highest scores and also the greatest variances. Rural/suburban and suburban schools had nearly equivalent levels of achievement, suggesting that proximity to an urban area may be more important than population density for student achievement. It is noted that rural/suburban schools do more with less than any other category. Study 4 was descriptive in nature and outlined differences between location categories for various measures of financial ability and financial effort. Contains 20 references and 11 data tables and figures. (SV) ED409128

McIntire, W. G., & And, O. (1990). Rural School Counselors: Their Communities and Schools. Paper presented at the School Counselor, 37, 3, 166-72 Jan 1990. Notes that the role of counselors in rural schools, particularly small rural schools, is extremely different from that of guidance counselors in larger urban and suburban schools. Discusses differences as reflections of economic, social, and political realities that influence families, communities, and schools of rural America. (NB) EJ408254

McKerrow, K. (15 Mar 1996). Advocacy and Ideology: Confrontation in a Rural School District., 30pp. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Educational Research Association (New York, NY, April 1996). This paper presents a critical qualitative account and analysis of resistance and contestation over the decision-making process in a special education program. The parties involved were four parent advocates, who formed an advocacy organization, and the school administration in a rural school district in the Midwest. A subtle but powerful bias against rural parents by educators and an accompanying "urban bias" to most educational research frame the context in which this detrimental process took place. How these groups used the elements of cultural capital (income and material resources, work and competence, confidence, and networks) in their efforts to achieve domination is examined. The organizational reaction of "cooling out the mark" (consoling or placating advocates in such a way that the structural inevitability of their failure is concealed from them) provides an additional dimension for understanding how such organizations exclude outsider input. None of the administrative or advocacy activities resulted in legitimate shared decision making as intended by law. Both groups used hegemonic cultural assumptions to justify the build-up of capital to limit the other group's domination of the process. This focus on "winning" and allegiance to a dysfunctional organizational ideology usurped genuine attempts to make decisions that were mutually shared by the administration and parent advocates. If the issues that face special education are precursors to issues of restructuring, this case should serve as an example, albeit a bad one. It exposes the futility of pursuing organizational strategies that are antithetical to shared decision making and ultimately, restructuring. Contains 35 references. (TD) ED410072

McKerrow, K. K., & Lee, S. S. (Apr 1991). Case Study of Hegemonic Confrontation in a Rural School District: Four Women and a Prick at the Newspaper., 46pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (72nd, Chicago, IL, April 3-7, 1991). This paper presents a critical analysis of events that surrounded the efforts of four mothers to gain access to the educational decision-making process. A basic premise is that a hegemonic relationship based upon gender pervades American education. The roles of administrator and parent are "gendered" concepts that affect the ways that people in these roles are treated. This case study, based on participant observation, examines the hegemony of gender in one small, rural, midwestern school district, where an administration perception was that all the school's problems were caused by "four bitches and a prick at the newspaper." The four women had handicapped children receiving special services, and they encountered administration resistance when they insisted on actively participating in educational decisions concerning their children. All administrators and board of education members, except the board president, were male. The real "problem" was that the four women asked questions and demanded answers; they moved outside the role allotted to them by the organization. They organized a parent support group, brought their grievances to the board of education, and, finally, filed a civil rights complaint. The local newspaper editor criticized the board's inaccessibility. After a climactic board meeting, the administration's control began to unravel. The district was found guilty of civil rights violations and of harassing parents and students; the administration lost credibility; and board members and administrators were replaced. The use of language to control perceptions and maintain the dominant ideology is discussed. This paper contains 38 references. (SV) ED334036

McLaughlin, D. H., & And, O. (May 1997). Characteristics of Small and Rural School Districts. Statistical Analysis Report., 147p. Small rural school districts constitute a major portion of the public elementary and secondary sector of education. Using information from the Common Core of Data, this report focuses on the approximately 4,000 small rural school districts operating since 1986-87; their status in 1993-94; and how they changed each year during that 7-year period, drawing comparisons where appropriate to larger districts and districts in urban and suburban settings. In this report, a small district is defined as one that has less than 25 students per elementary grade and less than 100 students per secondary grade. Chapters cover the following: (1) data sources and definitions of terms; (2) enrollment size and location of small rural districts, district grade-level types, school district consolidation, and enrollment trends; (3) school characteristics (number of schools per district, school size, grade span configuration, ungraded instruction, kindergarten and prekindergarten, and school closings); (4) student characteristics (minority groups, limited English proficiency, special education, and poverty); and (5) per- pupil revenues and expenditures and student-teacher ratios. Appendices include extensive data tables and technical notes. Contains 30 references and statistical figures. (SV) ED408144

Meadmore, P. (1 December 1999). Hard times, expedient measures: women teachers in Queensland rural schools, 1920-50. History of Education, 28(4), 435-447(413).

Meadmore, P. (1999). Hard times, expedient measures: women teachers in Queensland rural schools, 1920-50. History of education, 28(4), 435.

Mendez-Morse, S. E. (Mar 1990). Partnerships for Preventing Rural School Dropouts., 11pp. Paper presented at the Rural Education Symposium of the American Council on Rural Special Education and the National Rural and Small Schools Consortium (Tucson, AZ, March 18-22, 1990). To assist low-income rural schools with school improvement and dropout prevention, the Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (SEDL) has undertaken a multi-year project at five demonstration sites. This paper shares observations and lessons learned from the experiences of the five school districts involved in SEDL's partnership strategy. The sites are small, isolated rural schools with high percentages of at-risk students, located in communities characterized by limited economic opportunities. Partnerships were formed between the school districts and the regional laboratory, state departments of education, other educational agencies, and local businesses. These partnerships targeted and addressed each school's needs. SEDL and state departments of education provided extensive inservice training for teachers, focused on improving instructional skills and strategies through the transfer of new, research-based teaching methods to the classroom. To develop instructional leadership, SEDL staff provided administrators with current professional literature, modeled leadership behaviors associated with short- and long-term planning, and fostered administrator networking at leadership academies. Some lessons learned at the demonstration sites were that change strategies must emphasize the active involvement of teachers and administrators in shared decisionmaking and regular site-specific inservice training, and must recognize the critical leadership role of principals. (SV) ED337330

Mesa-Johnson, D., & Cox, J. (Mar 1990). The Modernization of a Rural School: A Leadership Research Study., 21pp. Paper presented at the Annual Research and Evaluation Conference of the Washington Educational Research Association (18th Tacoma, WA, March 15-16, 1990). This case study identifies the leadership styles of an experienced principal in his first year at a new position within a rural school cooperative. "Fred" is a 33-year-old male who was hired by the school system to bring in current instructional methods and management techniques, encourage student involvement, and strengthen the academic program. Data collection methods used were an interview guide, observation, and artifact collection. Changes initiated by the new principal included: (1) evaluating teaching strategies and providing inservice training; (2) organizing committees to develop new instructional objectives; (3) adopting a plan for "progressive discipline"; and (4) soliciting input from the community. Leadership style was analyzed in terms of authority and power within the school organization. Fred used the authority modes identified as charismatic, traditional, expert, and legal in various combinations throughout his school relationships. He preferred to use methods based on trust and expert knowledge, but, with reticent staff members, he used the power devices of "keeping to the contract" or "bestowing of technical resources." Leadership workstyles can be divided into four orientations which typify the principal's function in the school organization. Fred exhibited a leadership workstyle and saw himself as a staff motivator. While encouraging exploration of new teaching methods, his focus was not on technical tasks, but on overall performance. (KS) ED332837

Meyer, A., Nicholson, R., & Polk, V. (2000). A Model to Measure Program Integrity of Peer-Led Health Promotion Programs in Rural Middle Schools: Assessing the Implementation of the Sixth Grade Goals for Health Program. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 11(2), 223.

Miller, B. A. (1993). Rural Distress and Survival: The School and the Importance of "Community.". Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 9, 2, 84-103 Fall 1993. The survival of many rural communities is threatened by complex interacting economic and social conditions. Schools can play a significant role in revitalizing rural communities. Three approaches to community development involve community as curriculum; school as community center; and school-based economic development. Successful programs illustrating these approaches are described. (KS) EJ478231

Miller, J. C. (1913). Rural schools in Canada; their organization, administration and supervision, by James Collins Miller. New York,: Teachers college Columbia University. La414

Milstein, M., & And, O. (Oct 1990). Preparing Educational Leaders for Rural School Districts: New Mexico's State-Wide Collaborative Approach., 16pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the University Council for Educational Administration (Pittsburgh, PA, October 1990). Type on several pages darkened by toner. Educational administration faculty from five public higher education institutions in New Mexico formed a consortium to address the need for effective educational leaders in rural school districts. Members established the New Mexico Partners for Educational Leadership (PEL), composed of faculty from the five universities, leading educational administrators from New Mexico's rural school districts, selected school board members, and high-ranking officials from the State Department of Education. They developed the following strategies: (1) establishment of regional "pools" of rural school districts to facilitate the identification of potential leaders and provide supervision and subsequent placement; (2) development of a state-wide assessment center for selecting candidates of the preparation program; (3) professional development for preparation program faculty members; and (4) establishment of common standards for admissions and programmatic expectations across the five universities' preparation programs. During the next phase (1991-1992), faculty will deliver programs for candidates and establish cooperative arrangements for site supervision and placement in administrative positions. Concerns for the future are the cohesiveness of PEL, funding sources, availability of candidates, cooperation among university faculty, and support of school districts. (KS) ED328396

Molseed, T. (1997). Evaluating Restructuring Indicators for Rural Schools. The Rural educator, 19(1), 19.

Monhardt, R. M. (1998). Facilitating Science Literacy in a Rural School. Paper presented at the Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 18, 1, 47-53 Apr 1998. Examines the effects of issue-based science teaching on students in rural Idaho. Eighth-grade students investigated the use of the Bear River using the Jurisprudential Inquiry Model of Science, Technology and Society (STS) as a guide. Describes challenges encountered in attempting to integrate the use of technology as part of the project as well as resulting positive outcomes for students. (Author/PVD) EJ570909

Monteith, D. S. (1998). Special Education Administration Training for Rural Minority School Leaders: A Funded Proposal., 9pp. In: Coming Together: Preparing for Rural Special Education in the 21st Century. Conference Proceedings of the American Council on Rural Special Education (18th, Charleston, SC, March 25-28, 1998); see RC 021 434. Implementing the least restrictive environment or full inclusion philosophy places new demands on public school personnel. In particular, principals must command an understanding of special education to implement procedural requirements effectively and to provide appropriate educational services for disabled students in their schools. However, research has shown that: (1) many principals lacked formal training in special education but were interested in receiving such training; (2) principals were reluctant to assume new responsibilities related to special education due to their lack of training; (3) only a third of the states required administrators to have a knowledge of special education law; and (4) over half of the school administration graduate programs surveyed had no special education requirements. A survey of 120 administrators enrolled in graduate programs at South Carolina State University (SCSU) found that the great majority had no formal training in special education, felt that an effective school leader needed such training, and would be interested in participating. A total of 21 administrator competencies in special education are listed in the categories of core competencies, assessment, and special problems or topics. SCSU has received a 5-year grant from the U.S. Department of Education to fund a 15-credit concentration in special education for administrators. The five courses in the concentration are briefly described. Contains 28 references. (SV) ED417918

Moore, K. (1999). A Rural Community and Its School: Contemporary Insights through Historical Analysis. Paper presented at the Education in Rural Australia, 9, 1, 61-68 1999. The experiences of two schoolmasters in the small Western Port Bay fishing community of Hastings (Australia) in the last century are presented to provide insights to present-day teachers about the nature of living and teaching in a rural community. The second schoolmaster did a much better job than the first in involving parents in school activities. (CDS) EJ591930

Moores, S. (1999). Stepping Up the Rigor: A Tiny, Rural School Intensifies Its Reform Efforts. "Sea Change: Meeting the Challenge of Schoolwide Reform.". Paper presented at the Theme issue. Describes changes at Lake Labish Elementary in Salem, Oregon, resulting from the school's participation in the federal Comprehensive School Reform Demonstration program. Comprehensive reform streamlines every aspect of the school, from leadership, curriculum, and instruction to attitudes, resources, and parent involvement. The school's new reading program is highlighted. (CDS) EJ595860

Munodawafa, D., Marty, P. J., & Gwede, C. (February 1995). Effectiveness of health instruction provided by student nurses in rural secondary schools of Zimbabwe: a feasibility study. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 32(1), 27-38(12). This demonstration project used student nurses (n = 12) on community deployment to provide health instruction among rural school-age populations in Zimbabwe. A quasi-experimental (pre- and post-test), non-equivalent control group design was used and consisted of 141 school pupils in the intervention group and 144 pupils in the comparison group (N = 285). The curriculum focused on prevention of STDs, HIV/AIDS and drugs (alcohol, tobacco and marijuana). A gain in health knowledge scores among the intervention group was reported at post-test. More than 70% of the pupils who received health instruction from student nurses gave a high approval rating of student nurses' performance. Further, student nurses, teachers and tutors all support school health instruction by student nurses although tutors and teachers differ on teaching about condoms.

Murray, S., & Hillkirk, K. (1996). Moving a Small, Rural High School toward Self-Renewal. Paper presented at the Journal of Staff Development, 17, 3, 46-50 Sum 1996. One small, rural high school used cooperative professional development (CPD) as a means of group investigation to promote school renewal. CPD involves teaching, identifying, studying, and reporting on an issue of importance to teachers and their school. This paper describes how the school implemented and used CPD, examining lessons learned. (Author/SM) EJ533419

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Nebraska. Dept. of Public Instruction., & Baldridge, C. C. (1929). Requirements for standardization of rural schools. [Lincoln,: State journal company. Lb1567.n3 a2 1929 379.7

Nelson, E. C. (1995). Community/School Revitalization: Joining Rural Schools and Towns Together to Empower Young People and Enhance Their Sense of Belonging. Paper presented at the Small Town, 26, 2, 20-29 Sep-Oct 1995. A graduate course at Chadron State College, "Community/School Revitalization" is a year-long project that involves the local schools and the town's youth in community development while enhancing the students' learning experiences. Involving young people in local programs enables them to appreciate the quality of life in their communities because they help create it. (TD) EJ520535

Nelson, R., & Laughlin, L. (Mar 1997). The Challenge of School to Work Transition in a Rural State., 7pp. In: Promoting Progress in Times of Change: Rural Communities Leading the Way; see RC 020 986. The South Dakota Alliance for Transition establishes a formal partnership among state agencies, local service providers, and community stakeholders to address the transition needs of youth with disabilities. The 5-year federally funded project aims to enhance transition services through systems change: developing responsive case management and integrated transition services at pilot sites; training local school and agency personnel; coordinating services and linking programs; and creating networks for dissemination of information, materials, and services. Pilot projects were begun at four sites: one in the Sioux Falls area and three multicommunity rural sites with large geographic areas and low population densities. During the planning process, site coordinators, community service providers, teachers, community stakeholders, Others identified goals, barriers, and strategies for achieving project aims. The barriers fell into two broad groups: lack of resources and infrastructure typical of rural states and lack of comprehensive planning and coordination. The sites have found that keys to success include identifying and developing positive working relationships with key service providers; a willingness by all partners to work on shared projects; awareness and support of employers, families, and community members; access to training, education, information, and resources related to transition services; and promoting self-advocacy and good case management. (SV) ED406113

Neufeld, J., & And, O. (1995). Rural After-School Child Care: A Demonstration Project in a Remote Mining Community. Paper presented at the Rural Special Education Quarterly, 14, 3, 12-16 Sum 1995. In rural northeast Nevada, the University of Nevada Cooperative Extension and Lander County School District collaborated to develop and administer an after- school program for at-risk elementary students that provided care, homework sessions, and life skills education. Results included increased community support for such programs and improvements in student grades, attitudes toward school, and locus of control. (TD) EJ512522

New York (State). Rural School Survey. (1922). Rural school survey of New York state, a report to the rural school patrons. Ithaca, New York,. 379.7 n42 379

New York (State). Rural School Survey., Bagley, W. C., Brim, O. G., & Carney, M. (1923). Rural school survey of New York state; The teaching personnel The elementary curriculum Community relations. Ithaca, New York,. 371.1 b141 379 371.1 b141

Nicholas, R. (1999). Inclusive Literacy in Practice: Koori Kids in a Rural School. Paper presented at the Theme: Literacy, Education and Democracy. Describes the success of various school projects which focused on Aboriginal culture. Suggests these projects encouraged parental involvement and also gave the entire Aboriginal community new respect, pride, and sense of ownership of their school. (NH) EJ594655

No, s. a. P. L. (1997). Implementing School-to-Work in Rural Counties: A Statewide Survey Research Study for the Rural Educational Advisory Committee. Successful School-to-Work (STW) practices and implementation needs were examined in New York's 401 rural school districts. A short survey was completed by administrators in 128 districts. Preliminary findings from the survey were discussed at four community roundtables attended by 95 representatives of rural school districts and their partners. A nomination form was distributed widely to identify promising practices, and site visits were conducted in four nominated districts. The findings are presented around the following themes: (1) greater emphasis was on STW issues among administrators than among parents, teachers, or the business community; (2) great disparities existed among rural schools in the involvement of teachers and parents in STW activities; (3) the need for increased involvement of businesses and employers was apparent; (4) most rural schools were only in the planning or early stages of implementation; (5) there was limited information on model programs; (6) problems involving long distances to business sites and lack of student transportation existed; and (7) there were needs for targeted STW funding at the district level and for state support and legislation recognizing the distinct challenges of rural districts. Promising practices are described in each of these areas, and recommendations are listed based on the same themes. Two approaches are outlined for providing technical assistance to rural STW programs. (SV) ED442594

No, s. a. P. L. (1999). Assessment Monograph: A Special Report to the Rural School and Community Trust. This guide to different/alternative assessment was prepared for participants in the Rural School and Community Trust, formerly the Annenberg Rural Challenge. Given that Rural Trust participants focus on local place-based education and the relationship between rural schools and their communities, they are not, by and large, enamored of the externally-developed testing that has come to dominate schooling in America. This monograph briefly explains what's wrong with standardized tests and presents a detailed exposition of several assessment practices that aim to demonstrate student understanding through real-world problem solving and products of student work. These different/alternative assessment practices are also known as authentic assessments, performance assessments, educative assessments (formative evaluation), exhibitions, and portfolio assessment, among others. The monograph outlines principles of alternative assessments, recommends practices for designing different/alternative assessments, offers suggestions for constructing rubrics, and discusses ways to engage students in the evaluation criteria for quality performance. Specific examples are provided from various rural school communities that are constructing assessment procedures to reflect the quality of student work while centering student learning on the local community. An appendix presents a sample of a fifth-grade writing portfolio in a Vermont school. (Contains 16 references and 3 related Web sites.) (SV) ED443610

North Dakota. State Board of Education., & Macdonald, N. C. (1913). Rural school sanitation. Devils Lake, N.D.,: Journal Pub. Co. state printers. Lb3409.u6 379.7

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Oldendorf, S., & Riney, M. R. (1998). Collaboration on Campus: Teaching Rural High School Students through College Methods Classes., 29pp. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association (San Diego, CA, April 13-17, 1998). This paper describes and evaluates a 2-year collaborative project between two rural high schools and a teacher education college in Montana. An introduction covers rural teaching issues, rural school advantages and disadvantages, the demographics of the participating schools, rural collaborative efforts, and the microteaching experience. High school students came to the college once a week for 6 weeks to be taught lessons prepared by preservice teachers in conjunction with their methods course. Over a 2-year period, 170 participating high school students, 10 high school teachers, 3 administrators and 160 preservice teachers were surveyed to ascertain the effectiveness of the program. Evaluation methods included questionnaires, oral and videotaped interviews, debriefing sessions, observational and anecdotal evidence, and journals kept by the preservice teachers. Responses from teachers, administrators, high school students, and preservice teachers are summarized. Analysis highlights collaborative resonance (program enrichment through school-college collaboration), consensus building, collaborative planning of lessons and units, the value of reflection and critique for preservice teachers, positive student attitudes toward social studies and history, and increased college aspirations among students. (Contains 42 references.) (SAS) ED422147

Osborne, S., & deOnis, A. (1997). Parent Involvement In Rural Schools: Implications for Educators. The Rural educator, 19(2), 20.

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Paasch, K. M., & Swaim, P. L. (1995). More Rural Students Are Graduating from High School, but a Serious Dropout Problem Remains. "Rural Education and Training." Entire issue available from EDRS, see RC 020 673. Paper presented at the Theme issue. The nonmetropolitan dropout rate fell sharply, 1975-93, closing the nonmetro- metro gap. National longitudinal data on dropout risk factors related to family, community, and local labor market reveal that low parental education and income are the greatest barriers to reducing rural dropouts. High school students had unrealistic educational and occupational aspirations, indicating a serious school- work disconnection. (Author/SV) EJ528305

Packard, R. D., & Dereshiwsky, M. I. (Apr 1990). Evaluation Research: Assessment of a Rural Arizona School District Using a Case Study Model for Single-Setting, Embedded Focus-Group Interview & Analysis Procedures., 58pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Boston, MA, April 16-20, 1990). The focus-group interview format was used to investigate the existence, interrelationship, perceived strengths, and indicators of insufficiency in the implementation of the Career Ladders (CL) teacher-incentive program in a rural Arizona school district. Two interviews were planned for each of the following groups: school board members; CL Steering Committee members; administrators; office staff; parents; CL teachers; and non-CL teachers. Although these subject groups were diverse, the first set of interviews yielded some common themes: (1) a perceived overall lack of district readiness for the CL program; (2) the expressed need for an agreed upon curriculum; (3) the need for teacher effectiveness and accountability; (4) improved administrative leadership; and (5) improved organizational climate. The second set of interviews concentrated on problem areas, and identified several areas of concern: administrative leadership; program requirements; the evaluation process; communication requirements; and need for long-range planning. The two sets of focus-group interviews revealed that the format is a powerful tool for the validation of theoretical models, such as this model of support and focus factors. (SLD) ED324332

Paez, D., & Rhodes, R. (1998). Psychological Services and Rural Schools: Making the Relationship Work. Rural special education quarterly, 17(2), 16.

Pasour, K. (2000). The Way It Was: Gender Relations in the Rural Schools. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 66(2), 30.

Passarelli, A., Goehring, W., & Harley, A. (2000). Managing the Rural School Facility Construction Process., Chapter 7 in: Improving Rural School Facilities: Design, Construction, Finance, and Public Support; see RC 022 640. Page Length: 13. The decision to renovate or replace a school building is the starting point for a long and challenging journey with many phases: planning, development, and project delivery and construction. Each phase requires different levels of expertise, skills, and activities. The challenge of a rural facility project is to find leadership to provide guidance through all phases of the project. This chapter describes an approach to project management that can help the school district leadership to successfully interact with the construction management team while facilitating open, respectful, and effective communication with local stakeholders. This approachthe project cost management system (PCMS)has proved successful in rural school construction projects in Nebraska, Iowa, and South Dakota. Key to the success of this approach is a project manager with a good understanding of community needs and a good grasp of the technical aspects of school facility construction. This individual has responsibility for both developing community consensus and managing the technical details of the construction process. The various phases of PCMS are described, along with the role of the project manager in each: (1) the planning process (forming a facilities study committee, identifying needs related to building code violations and to new educational models and technologies, and seeking broad-based input from staff and community); (2) design workshops to develop the plan; (3) developing community consensus; (4) bond referendum campaign; and (5) project delivery and construction. (SV) ED445862

Patterson, K. (1997). A Cooperative Approach to Mentoring For rural Schools. The Rural educator, 19(1), 30.

Pearson, R. E., & Sutton, J. M., Jr. (1999). Rural and Small Town School Counselors. Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 15, 2, 90-100 Fall 1999. Group discussions and interviews with counselors in small and rural schools in Maine and upstate New York focused on the advantages and disadvantages of working in small schools, role generalization and confusion experienced by school counselors, professional autonomy and accountability, and the need for relevant inservice training. (Contains 33 references.) (SV) EJ600049

Peevely, G. L. P. L. (1999). Does Achieving Fiscal Equity by Rural Litigant School Districts Diminish Student Achievement Gaps with Non-Litigant Districts? On March 22, 1993, the Tennessee Supreme Court found the method used by the state to fund local school districts to be unconstitutional. This finding culminated litigation filed by 77 mostly small, rural school districts known as the Tennessee Small School Systems (TSSS), claiming that the state's system of funding education was inequitable and violated the equal protection clause of the state constitution. The TSSS maintained that the inequity in funding was a determining factor in an apparent gap in achievement levels between the plaintiffs and those districts perceived to have adequate revenues. In 1992, the Tennessee legislature enacted legislation mandating a more equalized funding formula with a 5-year phase-in for full funding, and a new assessment system, the Tennessee Value Added Assessment System (TVAAS). A study compared TVAAS scores for grades 2-8 by year and grade level for the rural litigant and non-litigant districts during the 5-year phase-in period in the areas of mathematics, reading, language, science, and social studies. Findings indicate that the gap in standardized test scores between the two groups showed no real change as funding was equalized. (TD) ED443604

Perreault, G., & Hill, G. (2000). Minding Your P's & Q's: Assessing Climate in Rural and Urban High Schools. Rural Educator, 22(1), 6-9.

Perroncel, C. B. P. L. (2000). Getting Kids Ready for School in Rural America. Rural Education Issue Document. National Education Goal One, "All children in America will start school ready to learn," seems simple, but being ready for school requires meeting certain needs related to physical, social, emotional, cognitive, and language development. Families, schools, and communities each have responsibilities in these areas. Families in "ready" homes provide opportunities for children to interact with people, places, and objects; know how to handle stress; have access to high-quality child and health care; and know whom to call for information and help. "Ready" schools allow space for children to work alone or in groups and to move about; do not require children to sit still for long periods of time, participate in countless skill drills, or spend their time filling out workbook pages; allow children to explore the classroom; and provide opportunities for play. The "ready" school is also equipped to cope with differences among young children, expects all children to learn, and is open to community members. In "ready" communities, families and community groups collaborate with the school and agencies that serve families and children. Everyone agrees on a long-term vision for young children. Rural areas have trouble meeting these expectations because of factors arising from geographic isolation and limited resources. Increasing rural families' access to health care and affordable, high-quality child care are the two major challenges for rural areas. Six suggestions for helping rural children succeed are: support high-quality and developmentally appropriate programs, assess children appropriately, link community resources, encourage joint staff development, offer parent training and support, and improve access to quality health care. (Contains 43 references.) (TD) ED445849

Pesek, J. G. (1993). Recruiting and Retaining Teachers in Pennsylvania's Rural School Districts. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 14, 3, 25-30 Spr 1993. A survey of 115 rural Pennsylvania principals examined the effectiveness of various recruitment sources for teachers. Substitute teacher lists were the most often used recruiting source. Problems in recruiting for "hard to fill" positions and the effectiveness of various methods for recruiting minorities are discussed. (LP) EJ467649

Petersen, G. J., Beekley, C. Z., Speaker, K. M., & Pietrzak, D. (1998). An Examination of Violence in Three Rural School Districts. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 19, 3, 25-32 Spr 1998. A study of teacher and administrator perceptions of school violence and violence prevention programs in three rural school districts focused on personnel fears, frequency of school personnel victimization, school environment areas posing greatest risks, profiles of typical victims and perpetrators, school strategies to deal with violent behavior, and effective prevention strategies. Includes data from a larger national survey. (SAS) EJ564459

Petersen, G., Beekley, C., & Pietrzak, D. (1998). Supporting Ongoing Professional Learning in Rural Schools. The Rural educator, 19(3), 25.

Phelps, M. S., & And, O. (14 Oct 1993). Empowering Rural Teachers for School ChangeConsequences of Involving Teachers in Educational Research., 19pp. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the National Rural Education Association (85th, Burlington, VT, October 14-17, 1993). This paper describes cooperative endeavors involving a team of researchers and the staff of two rural school districts. In early 1990, the researchers asked teachers and administrators in an economically distressed rural Tennessee district (pseudonym Iris) to participate in a study determining school, community, and family characteristics related to school success. Results revealed burned out and discouraged teachers and students, uninvolved parents, and families struggling economically and emotionally. A year later, school district personnel, parents, local businessmen, and one of the researchers collaborated to develop a 4-year K-12 dropout prevention program that included a longitudinal study of dropout characteristics. Iris also became involved in a five-county economic development initiative, becoming a site in a two-way interactive television and computer network. Meanwhile, personnel from a rural school district in Kentucky (pseudonym Goldenrod) asked if a study like the one at Iris could be conducted in their school. On the whole, the findings were positive. While economic conditions and school isolation were worse than at Iris, Goldenrod teachers and students believed that the school was working for them. Subsequent contacts and visits between Iris and Goldenrod personnel resulted in new enthusiasm among Iris teachers and a sense that they could improve their school. In rural schools, the involvement of teachers in research about school effectiveness may be more potent than involvement in classroom practice research. (SV) ED364372

Pietarinen, J. (1998). Rural School Students' Experiences on the Transition from Primary School to Secondary School., Paper presented at the European Conference for Educational Research (Ljubljana, Slovenia, September 17-20, 1998). Page Length: 14. A study in Finland examined rural students' experiences of the transition from a small rural primary school (grades 1-6) to a bigger village secondary school (grades 7-9). Qualitative data were obtained from essays written by 132 students in 13 small rural primary schools, 1 village school, and 1 city school. Students wrote the essays as 6th-graders in elementary school and again as 7th-graders in secondary school. Results indicate that the transition requires different kinds of adaptation from rural and city students, the most significant factors for rural students being changes in the school's physical, social, and pedagogical environment. Many rural students were disappointed with social relationships in the classroom or with the teaching, and faced social or cognitive problems. The change from the class, teacher-based learning environment of the primary school to the subject, teacher-based learning environment of the secondary school demanded a considerable amount of adaptation from students. The secondary school learning environment became more impersonal, formal, and competitive, and teachers became more controlling just at the point when adolescents were seeking more autonomy. Finally, students' achievement did not necessarily correspond to how well they had adjusted to their new school. Recommendations include more equal communication between secondary teachers and students and better cooperation between primary and secondary schools. Communities should reconsider whether to close small rural schools because the resulting extended transportation time results in unequal opportunities to cope with secondary school. (Contains 27 references.) (TD) ED438975

Pittman, R. B., & Herzog, M. J. R. (1998). Evaluation of a Year-Round Schedule in a Rural School District. Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 14, 1, 15-25 Spr 1998. Evaluation of year-round education (YRE) in a rural North Carolina school district found disruption to "sense of community;" positive attitudes among participating teachers, students, and parents (primarily based on personal scheduling preferences); but no advantages in attendance or achievement. Results suggest that decisions to use YRE should be based on community "fit," not unsubstantiated claims of educational superiority. (TD) EJ574236

Polk, V. (1 June 2000). A Model to Measure Program Integrity of Peer-Led Health Promotion Programs in Rural Middle Schools: Assessing the Implementation of the Sixth Grade Goals for Health Program. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 11(2), 223-252(230). The National Cancer Institute supports our research on the Goals for Health (GFH) program as a part of their priority to reduce cancer incidence. GFH consists of a 12-workshop 6th-grade program led by trained high-school leaders and a 10-workshop 7th-grade program taught by health instructors. The 6th-grade program occurs in small groups, and includes goal-setting activities, skits, videos, and healthy snacks. Challenges to program integrity are intensified due to the fact high-school volunteers implement the entire 6th-grade program. Strategies for optimizing program implementation of the peer-led component of GFH are presented in light of their feasibility at 6 rural middle schools in Virginia and New York. Modifications for future implementation of the 6th-grade component of GFH are presented as well as implications for peer-led community-based prevention efforts.

Pollard, K., & And, O. (Dec 1990). Selective Migration of Rural High School Seniors in the 1980s. Staff Working Papers., 29p. In the 1980s the outmigration from rural areas of young and well educated adults was prompted by the decline of rural industries and the resultant economic stress. This paper examines the issue of selective migration during the 1980s by comparing young people who left their hometown to those who stayed behind. Longitudinal survey data collected in the High School and Beyond datafile (1980- 86) are used to analyze the individual and community level factors affecting the probability of migration from a hometown. Of the rural youth who were seniors in 1980, 40% had moved at least 50 miles from their hometown by 1986 and had gained advantages in education, income, and occupational status. Comparison of data between these migrants and those who did not migrate indicate that migrants: (1) continued their formal education at a higher rate than nonmigrants (77% compared to 54%), with 30% completing a four-year college program (compared to 10% of nonmigrants); (2) held professional or managerial jobs at a higher rate than nonmigrants (38% compared to 15%); (3) earned about 10% more than nonmigrants; (4) came from homes with better educated parents (64% compared to 46%); (5) had taken college preparatory classes (45% compared to 23%), and (6) had taken either the SAT or ACT (73% compared to 45%). Separate logistic regression analysis of community factors indicate: (1) youth in the rural Midwest and West are more likely to migrate than those in the South and Northeast; (2) higher average per capita income in the home county decreased the probability of migration; (3) higher high school expenditures per student increased migration probability; and (4) the greater the distance of the nearest four-year college, the more probable was eventual migration. Includes 17 references and 12 data tables. (ALL) ED332840

Pollard, K., & O'Hare, W. P. (Mar 1990). Beyond High School: The Experience of Rural and Urban Youth in the 1980s. Staff Working Papers., 56p. The deterioration of industries in rural America in the 1980s has placed rural youth in a difficult situation. Those who remain in rural areas face a scarcity of good jobs, while those who leave face competition for employment against better-educated metropolitan youth. A study was conducted to: (1) examine the educational experiences of both metro and nonmetro youth by their senior year in 1980; (2) analyze what had happened to these same seniors six years later in terms of education, income, and occupational status; and (3) determine the impact of migration on the senior class of 1980. Using the data file of the High School and Beyond survey conducted by the U.S. Department of Education, the study determined that metropolitan youth had several advantages over nonmetropolitan youth by their senior year in high school. The 1980 data show that metro seniors were more likely to (1) have well-educated parents; (2) have taken a curriculum that better prepared them for college; and (3) score higher on tests of cognitive skills. Follow-up data from 1986 show that metro seniors tended to: (1) continue formal education; (2) have higher incomes and earnings; and (3) be more likely to work in white-collar jobs than nonmetro seniors. The difference in occupational status was evident at nearly all levels of education. Rural youth have diminished opportunities which have often made a successful transition to adulthood more difficult. Data tables are included in the appendix. (ALL) ED326363

Post, D., & Stambach, A. (1999). District Consolidation and Rural School Closure: E Pluribus Unum? Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 15, 2, 106-20 Fall 1999. Analyzes the debate over closure of a rural Pennsylvania high school and consolidation with a much larger school in the state's geographically largest school district. Discusses parent survey results, which highlight the enduring social tension between the centralizing efforts of governing bodies and the interests of local communities in maintaining their identity and parent control of education. (Author/SV) EJ600051

Prater, D., Bermudez, A., & Owens, E. (1997). Examining Parental Involvement in Rural, Urban, and Suburban Schools. Journal of research in rural education, 13(1), 71.

Prater, G., & And, O. (1996). The Rural Special Education Project: A School-Based Program That Prepares Special Educators to Teach Native American Students. Paper presented at the Rural Special Education Quarterly, 15, 1, 3-12 Win 1996. A Northern Arizona University program prepares preservice special education teachers to work with Native American children and families. University students live on the Navajo reservation and receive practical classroom experience at Kayenta Unified School District (Arizona). Anglo students are paired with Navajo students who act as "cultural advisers." Includes suggestions for implementing intensive school-based teacher preparation programs. (LP) EJ523561

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Ramirez, A., & Guzman, N. (October 1999). The Rural School District Superintendency: A Colorado Perspective., Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the National Rural Education Association (Colorado Springs, CO, October 13-17, 1999). A survey of 105 rural school superintendents in Colorado investigated areas significant to success in and satisfaction with the superintendency in rural school districts. These areas included school district background, perceptions of the rural superintendency, future plans of respondents, governance issues, board-superintendent relations, external support, personal management issues, policy issues, and financial support. The average age of respondents was 51; 84 percent were male; the average experience as a superintendent was 9.3 years; and the average number of superintendent positions held was 1.6. Half the school districts served fewer than 744 students. Forty-one percent of students in the school districts received free or reduced-price lunch. Results indicate that respondents were highly satisfied with their jobs, but were less satisfied with their compensation package; expressed satisfaction with the level of decision-making authority available to them; and indicated good support for public education from parents, the community, and local media. However, one- third of respondents indicated that they were considering a career change in the next 3 years. When asked about boards of education, 76 percent of respondents were highly satisfied with their relationship with the board, and 86 percent were highly satisfied with the collaborative effort between the board and the superintendent. The majority of respondents expressed concern about the shrinking number of applicants for vacant teaching positions, but were enthusiastic about the dedication and quality of school personnel. An overwhelming number expressed dissatisfaction with the state charter school law. Respondents were also dissatisfied with the interdistrict choice program and the amount of time spent on mandatory testing. (LP) ED437235

Raymond, A. (1995). A Rural School Mobilized the People and Miracles Happened. Paper presented at the Teaching PreK-8, 26, 1, 52-57 Sep 1995. Describes how an undersupported rural elementary school in Mississippi became a model school with the unique Voyages curriculum. Under the dynamic, professional leadership of its principal, the school and teachers involved the entire community, local legislators, Others to gain support and funds for its innovative program that created an authentic, real-life learning environment. (ET) EJ518625

Reaves, W. E., Jr., & Larmer, W. G. (1996). The Effective Schools Project: School Improvement in Rural Settings through Collaborative Professional Development. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 18, 1, 29-33 Fall 1996. The Effective Schools Project (ESP) is a collaborative staff development program serving public schools surrounding Tarleton State University in rural Texas since 1988. Describes how schools become involved in ESP, school improvement activities, program administration, the role of the university in program implementation, and professional development activities available to both university faculty and school personnel. (LP) EJ533123

Reynolds, D. R. (1999). There Goes the Neighborhood: Rural School Consolidation at the Grass Roots in Early Twentieth-Century Iowa. From 1912 to 1921, Iowa was the center of national attention as state and local education leaders attempted to implement a new model of rural education. This model was part of the Country Life Movement, whose proponents sought to create a more modern future for farm families, an alternative form of rural community that combined the advantages of city and country. This book analyzes the politics, geography, and social history of rural education reform and its principal policy prescriptionrural school consolidationin Iowa during this period. Resistance to consolidation was particularly virulent in the rural Midwest. Resistance was both place-based and class-based and proceeded in a highly localized manner. In most instances, the socially elite perceived rural resistance to be based on irremediable ignorance or reactionary perniciousness and did not recognize farm people's concerns that consolidation would undermine existing social relations and, therefore, the sustainability of family farming. Part 1 examines the theoretical and historical contexts of rural education reform in the Midwest and Iowa in the early 20th century. Part 2 provides a case study of how the school consolidation movement and local resistance unfolded in a particular place: Delaware County, Iowa, and the town of Buck Creek. An epilogue discusses implications for rural education reform today. An appendix provides demographic statistics for areas supporting and opposing consolidation. (Contains approximately 200 references, an index, and photographs.) (SV) ED436330

Reynolds, J. (1997). Designing the Internship for Small and Rural Schools. The Rural educator, 18(3), 12.

Reynolds, J. (1998). Do Rural schools Need Character Education? The Rural educator, 20(2), 33.

Richardson, M., & Miller, M. (2000). Picture Book Selection for Small Rural Schools. Rural Educator, 21(3), 28-34.

Rickert, V. I., & And, O. (1997). Rural School-Based Clinics: Are Adolescents Willing to Use Them and What Services Do They Want? Paper presented at the Journal of School Health, 67, 4, 144-48 Apr 1997. Researchers examined willingness to use a school-based health center's (SBHC) primary care services. Rural 7th through 12th graders completed a survey. Results indicated that, although most were initially unwilling to change their primary care site to an SBHC, many were willing to use a variety of the offered services. (SM) EJ550006

Ritter, E. L., & Wilmarth, A. L. (1925). Rural school methods. New York, Chicago [etc.]: C. Scribner's sons. Lb1567 379.7 379.7.R515a

Rong, M. (1998). On Township Government's Management of Rural Schools in China. She hui k‡o hs{‡}ueh chan hsien, 94(4), 202.

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Saba, R. G. (1991). The Rural School Counselor: Relationships among Rural Sociology, Counselor Role, and Counselor Training. Paper presented at the Counselor Education and Supervision, 30, 4, 322-29 Jun 1991. Discusses sociological dynamics associated with rural United States, how these dynamics relate to the role of the rural school counselor, and what implications these have for counselor education programs. Discusses issues of isolation, time and money, visibility, lack of specialists, personal interaction, generalists, and local culture. (Author/NB) EJ432281

Sander, W. (1997). Catholic High Schools and Rural Academic Achievement. American journal of agricultural economics, 79(1), 1.

Sarvela, P. D., & Monge, E. A. (1999). Health Behaviors of Elementary School Children in Rural Southern Illinois. Paper presented at the Supported by Southern Illinois Healthcare. Page Length: 9. A study of patterns of health behavior among rural and small-town children surveyed 1,950 K-6 students from seven southern Illinois elementary schools. Findings indicate that less than half of the students ate the recommended amounts of fruits, vegetables, and grain each day. Males and females smoked at about the same rates, but sixth-grade boys drank significantly more than sixth-grade girls. Boys fought and shot guns without adult supervision significantly more than girls, but there was no gender difference in bringing weapons to school. Twenty percent of students knew someone who had brought a weapon to school. About 50 percent of students rode a bike each day or played on a sports team, and 8 percent walked to school. Seatbelt use decreased from 94 percent in kindergarten to 77 percent in the sixth grade, with no significant difference between boys and girls. Fifty six percent of second graders wore a helmet when riding their bike, compared to 19 percent of sixth graders. Tooth brushing and hand washing did not vary by grade level, with 88 percent reporting daily tooth brushing and 93 percent reporting washing their hands after going to the bathroom. In general, older children were less likely to engage in positive health behaviors. The most consistent gender difference was in regard to fighting and weapons, with boys reporting much higher rates. School-based programs implemented in partnership with community health programs and focused mass-media activities are recommended to help children develop healthy habits. (Contains 19 references.) (TD) ED445840

Savage, M. p. S., Lisa B. (1998). Physical Activity and Rural Middle School Adolescents. Paper presented at the Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 27, 2, 245-53 Apr 1998. This study reports the self-reported out-of-school physical activity of 229 male and 593 female adolescents in three rural middle schools. Over one- third reported participation in vigorous physical activity less than twice a week, and almost half of females reported levels of activity below nationally recommended guidelines. (SLD) EJ571213

Schatz, L. (1997). Universal Service Fund Brings Opportunities to Michigan's Schools, Libraries and Rural Health Care Providers. Media spectrum / Michigan Association for Media in Education, 24(3), 29.

Scott, B. D. P. L. (1999). Standing Up for Community and School: Rural People Tell Their Stories. Seven case studies illustrate how rural people and communities have resisted the arbitrary limits of public policy. In contrast to one-size-fits-all education policy, a history teacher in rural southern Texas motivated his Mexican American high school students to collect oral histories in their community, develop them into a curriculum, and teach it to second graders. A California mother home-schooled her daughter rather than submit to the school's insistence that she be placed in special education. An Alabama community's successful fight to stop consolidation of its school renewed local interest in community and democracy. A college student successfully challenged a National Collegiate Athletic Association decision barring her from sports because of its rigid adherence to arbitrary and regressive educational standards. A Minnesota city council, recycling center, high school, college, and legislature cooperated on a student-run bicycle repair and rental shop. A Native Alaskan adolescent mother completed high school through correspondence courses due to a self-defeating community policy that limited local high school education. A Mississippi community that recommended integration of a student-run credit union into the math curriculum encountered resistance from the school board because it was not the board's idea. Recognizing policy barriers encourages people to work toward replacing them with policies that reflect a broad, inclusive vision of human possibilities. A chart lists state legislative hotlines and contact information for state departments of education, education committees, state-based partners of the Rural Challenge, and state-based rural and rural education organizations. (TD) ED440788

Seal, K. R., & Harmon, H. L. (1995). Realities of Rural School Reform. Paper presented at the Phi Delta Kappan, 77, 2, 119-20,122-24 Oct 1995. Schools in isolated rural areas like Braxton County, West Virginia, can emerge as learning communities and telecommuting villages. Future school mergers will be less common than consolidation of programs and services to improve access for students, their families, and the community. Technology will link schools with a global information network. (12 references) (MLH) EJ513379

Sederberg, C. H. (1991). A Programmatic Viability Model for Planning Rural School District Organizations. Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 7, 3, 29-37 Sum 1991. Presents a computerized programmatic feasibility model for estimating revenues and expenditures of Minnesota school districts to determine whether a district or combination of districts could offer state-mandated instructional and support services on a continuing basis. Discusses four pilot applications relating to reorganization decisions. (SV) EJ433482

Seidl, A., Mulkey, D., & Blanton, D. (1999). Youth in Rural Community Development: High School Survey Researchers in Immokalee, Florida. Paper presented at the Available at http://joe.org/joe/1999february/rb2.html. High school students surveyed 200 businesses in Immokalee, Florida, using the findings to create a business directory. Students learned about elementary statistics, interviewing, public relations, and data reporting. The project benefitted school-community relations and made students more aware of their community. (SK) EJ581088

Seltzer, D. A., & Himley, O. T. (1995). A Model for Professional Development and School Improvement in Rural Schools. Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 11, 1, 36-44 Spr 1995. A professional development model implemented in rural Iowa schools involves participation of school teams in school improvement, technical assistance based on needs assessment, focus on teaching and learning strategies that promote meaningful connections, extended planning time, recognition that change requires long-term support, networking of teams across schools, ownership of the professional development agenda, and process evaluations. (Author/LP) EJ510714

Sen-Hai, Y., Jones, J., Long-Shan, X., Bao-Jun, P., Jin-Xiang, L., & Li-Ping, C. (September 2000). Creating health-promoting schools in rural China: a project started from deworming. Health Promotion International, 15(3), 197-206(110). Intestinal helminth infection is highly endemic in rural areas of China. This project was implemented to determine if deworming efforts through schools could reduce helminth infections and successfully serve as an entry point for developing a more comprehensive approach to school health, i.e. the components of `health-promoting schools'. Six primary and junior secondary schools with 6188 students were involved in the project. Major interventions in four experiment schools included: examination and treatment of helminth infections; health education; improvement of school physical environment; establishment of relevant school policies and regulations; and strengthening relationship between school and community. The only intervention taken by the other two schools as controls was deworming. After 1 year of implementation, helminth infection in students and environmental contamination by helminth eggs in experiment schools decreased by ~80%, significantly higher than that in control schools. Remarkable improvements in students knowledge, behaviour and skills of health protection, in school physical facilities, in school/community relationship, and in relevant policies and practices, were also observed in the experiment schools. The conclusions are that the concept of the health-promoting school has been well accepted by the students, teachers, parents and local government officers, and that helminth reduction is an effective and feasible entry point for establishing health-promoting schools in rural areas where helminth infection has been an important public health problem.

Sher, J. P. (1995). The Battle for the Soul of Rural School Reform. Paper presented at the Phi Delta Kappan, 77, 2, 143-48 Oct 1995. While metropolitan school systems are moving toward decentralization and personalized instruction, rural America is still being coerced into consolidations and district mergers. The Annenburg Rural Challenge, a force for nontraditional reform, is sponsoring bold, community-based initiatives aimed at transforming teaching and learning in genuinely good, rural schools. (MLH) EJ513383

Sherwood, T. (1999). A Practical Look at Comprehensive School Reform for Rural Schools. In fall 1997, Congress approved funding to implement Comprehensive School Reform Demonstration (CSRD) programs, primarily in Title I schools in high- poverty areas. This digest explains CSRD and what it might mean to rural schools. Since 1965, Title I has provided resources to at-risk children in lower-income schools. Changes in 1988 and 1994 broadened Title I by supporting "schoolwide" projects, while the 1997 CSRD legislation lays out criteria by which schools may select research-based reform models or develop their own strategies. In October 1998, Congress provided 2 more years of CSRD funding, including funds for technical assistance and field studies on the impact of various CSRD models on student achievement. Criteri a for CSRD programs are listed. Field research on whole-school reform suggests that schoolwide projects increase achievement gains by at-risk students. Studies identify strategies that increase program effectiveness, as well as barriers to reform implementation and sustainability. CSRD requirements suggest that quality technical assistance will be a vital consideration for small and rural schools with scarce resources. CSRD is supported by active involvement of outside experts who aid educators with the details of real-life problems and challenges of reform. While it remains to be seen how federal and state officials interpret CSRD criteria, rural schools have opportunities to craft schoolwide reforms that fit local needs. (Contains 15 references.) (SV) ED425047 Available from: ERIC/CRESS, P.O. Box 1348, Charleston, WV 25325-1348; phone: 800-624-9120 (free). You may be able to order this document from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service.

Shifflett, D. M. (1994). What Effect Do Volunteers Have on a Rural Primary School?, 30p. This paper examines the use of volunteers in a rural primary school and their effects on teacher use of time and student behavior in the classroom. A survey was completed by 45 teachers and other personnel at Allendale Primary School in rural central Virginia. The school had 58 volunteers, of whom 38 volunteered on a weekly basis averaging 112 hours per week. Ninety percent of volunteers were parents. Volunteers chaperoned trips, helped with nonroutine events such as career days, tutored individual students or small groups, helped with enrichment activities, provided instructional support such as grading papers, and provided clerical or library support. About 52 percent of staff felt that having a volunteer increased planning time, and 76 percent felt that having a volunteer increased instructional time. All specialists and over 80 percent of teachers felt that having a volunteer increased the amount of individual time spent with students and produced a positive effect on classroom behavior. Appendices contain the school questionnaire and teacher comments. (SV) ED373945

Smith, P. (1998). "Somebodies, They Broke My Castle for Notheen": Lessons from Rural Schools. The Teacher educator, 33(3), 165.

Sommer, A., & Educational Resources Information Center (U.S.). (1990). Rural school district cooperatives. Portland, Or. [Washington, DC]: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory ; U.S. Dept. of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement Educational Resources Information Center. Ed 1.310/2:324189

Stammen, R. M. (1992). Computer Conferencing: Perspectives of Rural School Administrators. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 13, 2, 24-27 Win 199 1992. Surveyed 74 rural school administrators to determine perspectives concerning barriers and problems regarding the use of computer conferencing technologies. Found that computer conferencing use is minimal in schools and nonexistent among school administrators, but interest is high. Administrators agreed with more than half of the 11 barriers listed. (KS) EJ443522

Stewart, G. K. (1998). Options for Improving Rural School Facilities. Updated June 6, 1998., 24pp. Originally prepared April 10, 1998, for the Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities, Appalachia Educational Laboratory (Kansas City, MO, May 1-2, 1998). Many options exist for improving rural school facilities, among which are questions of school closure versus modernization or replacement. This report addresses the question of the future of the community rural school and how communities, school boards, and school executives can approach school improvement problems. It defines and examines various available options in the areas of facility improvements, school maintenance, building operations, and school reorganization. In addressing the issue of school closure, it lists several questions that should be answered so that the closure decision is in the best interests of the students and also supports the school district mission. The report also explores the option of reorganizing rural schools as either magnet, charter, or theme schools as well as using facilities for other educational or non-education uses. Finall y, the option of marketing the rural school to students in neighboring school districts is examined. (GR) ED426572 You may be able to order this document from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service.

Stickel, S. A. (Feb 1991). A Study of Burnout and Job Satisfaction among Rural School Counselors., 12pp. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Eastern Educational Research Association (Boston, MA, February 13-16, 1991). Numerous studies have reported that school counselors often experience high levels of stress as part of their jobs. Much of this stress has been characterized as related to attempting to meet the many demands of the position as well as to performing many non-professional duties. This study examined burnout and job satisfaction among rural school counselors. The Maslach Burnout Inventory for Educators and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, Short Form, were mailed to 214 western rural schools each having a single counselor. Materials were returned by 147 counselors representing a 68.6% rate of return. Scores for emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, personal accomplishment, general satisfaction, intrinsic satisfaction, and extrinsic satisfaction were computed from the two instruments. Appropriate descriptive statistics were computed and regression analysis performed. Counselors were found to exhibit moderate levels of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. Personal accomplishment scores were high, indicative of low burnout in this area. Job satisfaction scores compared to appropriate norm groups indicated a lower level of job satisfaction. Moderate negative correlations resulted between the emotional exhaustion and depersonalization subscales of the burnout measure and the measures of job satisfaction. Moderate positive correlations were noted between personal accomplishment and the measures of job satisfaction. (ABL) ED329823

Stickel, S. A. (Mar 1992). Role Perceptions of the Rural School Counselor: A Factor Analysis., 18pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Eastern Educational Research Association (Hilton Head, SC, March 3-7, 1992). Role definition has historically been a problem for the school counselor. It seems critical that role definitions continue to be developed, measured, and disseminated. This study is concerned with an initial psychometric analysis of an instrument, The Counselor Role Inventory (CRI). The CRI contains 20 questions on a 5-point Likert-type scale. The instrument was designed utilizing the role statement of the American School Counselor Association, current theory in guidance and counseling, and relevant research results. The instrument contains five variables: (1) prevention; (2) remediation; (3) commitment; (4) sub- professional duties; and (5) perceived effectiveness. Instruments were mailed to 214 counselors in a 3-state area in schools containing 1 counselor who reported to a respective principal. The entire return was 154 surveys. For each item, respondents answered three times, forming three scales. The first measured whether the function was perceived as part of the ideal role of the school counselor, the second if it was typical of the present role as a school counselor, and the third pertained to the perception of how the building principal perceives the role. The instrument provides a degree of complexity, is exploratory, and as such is still in a preliminary stage of establishing reliability and validity. Counselors in this study seemed to identify a broad based ideal role based on prevention, remediation, and commitment functions that do not include sub-professional duties. (LLL) ED344136

Storer, J. H., & And, O. (1995). Rural School Personnel's Perception and Categorization of Children at Risk: A Multi-Methodological Account. Paper presented at the Equity & Excellence in Education, 28, 2, 36-45 Sep 1995. Studies the problem of rural Iowa school personnel classifying students according to a "folk" classification of risk rather than research-derived risk factors. The authors construct a "cognitive map" for these teachers of at-risk students. The implications of the content of this map for meeting the needs of at-risk students are discussed. (GR) EJ519199

Storer, J. H., & Crosswait, D. J. (1995). Paper presented at the Rural Special Education Quarterly, 14, 3, 23-30 Sum 1995. EJ512524

Storer, J. H., & Crosswait, D. J. (1995). Rural-Urban Bias in School Prevention Curricula. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 16, 3, 15-19,31 Spr 1995. The lifestyles and daily experiences of rural children and adolescents differ considerably from those in urban or suburban areas. Examination of 15 curriculum materials related to substance abuse prevention and development of student decision-making skills revealed that depictions of situations and settings ignored or (less frequently) stereotyped rural lifestyle and culture. (SV) EJ502068

Street, S., & Bennett, D. (Mar 1997). Best Practices in Rural Staff Development: The Clive School Story., 13pp. In: Promoting Progress in Times of Change: Rural Communities Leading the Way; see RC 020 986. This paper describes how Clive School, a small rural K-9 school in Alberta (Canada), used a team teaching approach and the best practices of staff development to facilitate the inclusion of special needs students into general education classrooms. Since September 1989, the staff at Clive School have been involved in developing their school into a Cooperative Learning Demonstration School. In contrast to the traditional special education pull-out program, cooperative learning (CL) involves co-teaching partnerships between the classroom and the resource specialist teacher. In June 1990, the school received a 2-year grant to provide CL training, technical assistance, and consulting services to the Clive school staff; identify key tools, strategies, and ideas that empowered staff at Clive school; and create a videotape explaining the project. Following a half-day CL inservice, teachers decided to focus on CL as the primary professional development project for the next 2 years. Specifically, the 2-year project aimed to help teachers understand distinctions among competitive, individualistic, and cooperative goal structures, as well as the five basic elements of social learning. During this period, teachers developed a team action plan describing how CL would be implemented based on the best practices of staff development, implemented CL in their classrooms, formed peer coaching relationships to help each other learn CL teaching strategies, and elected to become an Alberta CL demonstration program so that other teachers could observe CL strategies in the classroom. (LP) ED406093

Stringfield, S., & Teddlie, C. (1991). School, Classroom, and Student Level Indicators of Rural School Effectiveness. Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 7, 3, 15-28 Sum 1991. Compares school, classroom, and student level data for matched pairs of high- and low-achieving rural schools and matched pairs of urban schools. Finds that organizational and interpersonal processes sustaining effective schools vary by rural/urban context. Includes three longitudinal case studies of rural schools. Contains 26 references. (SV) EJ433481

Sullivan, M. E., & Leary, P. A. (18 Mar 1991). Perceptions of Rural School Administrators of the Role and Function of Special Education Administrators., 14pp. In: Reaching Our Potential: Rural Education in the 90's. Conference Proceedings, Rural Education Symposium (Nashville, TN, March 17-20, 1991); see RC 018 473. This study examined expectations, with respect to the role of the special education administrator, held by key administrative personnel within West Virginia's rural school systems. Surveys were sent to all county superintendents, all county special education administrators, and a randomly selected sample of 150 school principals, resulting in 202 responses from a total of 260 individuals surveyed. The survey instrument consisted of 40 specific task descriptions organized and assigned to 7 types of administrative activity. Respondents were asked to rate the perceived performance and the perceived importance of the tasks. Significant differences were found: (1) between special education administrators and principals regarding the perceived performance of 19 tasks; (2) between special education administrators and superintendents regarding the perceived importance of 2 tasks; (3) between special education administrators and principals regarding the perceived degree of importance of 17 tasks; (4) between special education administrators and superintendents regarding the perceived degree of importance of one task. These differences imply potential areas of conflict among rural special education administrators, superintendents, and principals. The greatest potential for conflict exists between the special education administrator and principal. Implications for administrative endorsements and organizational structures are discussed. (KS) ED342552

Sunal, D. W. (1991). Rural School Science Teaching: What Affects Achievement. Paper presented at the School Science and Mathematics, 91, 5, 202-10 May-Jun 1991. Reports a study to investigate the factors that affect science achievement in rural secondary schools. Data from multiple sources provided a profile of the science programs and teachers, and factor analysis identified groupings related to science achievement that included teacher variables, student and teacher attendance, and teacher in-service education variables. (MDH) EJ455066

Sutton, J. M., Jr., & Southworth, R. S. (1990). The Effect of the Rural Setting on School Counselors. Paper presented at the School Counselor, 37, 3, 173-78 Jan 1990. Surveyed public school counselors (N=338) in Maine to determine effect of rural setting on school counselors. Found that counselors in rural districts perceived their relationships with their administrators in significantly more positive manner than did counselors in nonrural settings. Rural counselors found adequacy and availability of referral services to be more of a problem than did nonrural counselors. (NB) EJ408255

Swick, K. J. (19 Apr 1990). A Rural Teacher-Parent Partnership To Enhance School Success., 5pp. Paper presented at the Meeting of the Southern Rural Education Association (Atlanta, GA, April 19, 1990). A partnership between the College of Education of the University of South Carolina, the Salkehatchie Consortium of schools, International Business Machines, and families and schools in Allendale, South Carolina, and Estill, Denmark was formed in an effort to implement a project designed to enhance the school success of at-risk elementary school students. Goals of the project were to: (1) increase the language, mathematics, expressive communication, and social responsibility skills of young at-risk children by strengthening the school curriculum; (2) develop a systematic approach to extending the key concepts curriculum into the home; and (3) implement the curriculum in school and home in ways that would increase children's school success and parents' self-confidence, improve parent-child relationships, and strengthen teachers' roles as classroom leaders and facilitators between school and home. Indications of the project's success can be seen in the areas of training, curriculum development, home-school involvement, innovative uses of computer technolgy, and collaboration between university, school, and community. The long-term goal of the Teacher-Parent Partnership Project is to create a system by means of which schools can introduce the concept of "school-family learning practices" at the beginning of the child's educational experience. (RH) ED317287

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Sommer, A. (1 May 1990). Rural School District Cooperatives. Program Report., 47pp. Some highlighted headings in this document may not reproduce well. This paper examines primary issues influencing rural educational cooperatives. The paper highlights the benefits of rural cooperative formation and outlines the key points in creating effective rural interdistrict cooperatives. It is directed toward those who are interested in policy issues surrounding cooperative development and maintenance. The central focus is on local policy choices which affect rural school district cooperative development. The first section contains a working definition of cooperatives, describing different types of cooperatives and their benefits. Different types of cooperatives include: (1) formal, independent cooperatives; (2) cooperatives with governing boards; and (3) cooperatives with limited scope. Keypoints of cooperative development include establishing clear goals, good organizational structure, identifying strong leaders, and using available support organizations. The second section features a brief planning guide for cooperative development and refers to potential trouble spots which should be addressed so rural school district cooperatives can prosper. Steps include evaluating district strategies, selecting a form of cooperative, and organizing it. A sample of suggested cooperative goals is offered. The document includes a bibliography of approximately 75 entries. (TES) ED324189

Stephens, E. R. (1993). Rural School Outcome Indicators: Reassessing the Evidence. Paper presented at the ERS Spectrum, 11, 3, 3-11 Sum 1993. Profiles educational outcomes produced by rural schools, based on four indicators (student achievement scores, student participation rates, measures of student behaviors and attitudes, and measures of postschool outcomes) likely to be stressed in the unfolding public education performance debate. Although NAEP assessments compare favorably with national mean proficiency levels, they compare unfavorably with their suburban counterparts. (17 references) (MLH) EJ466846

Stevens, K. (1995). Vocational Choice for Senior High School Students in Rural Australian Communities. Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 11, 3, 182-86 Win 1995. Tenth-grade students in many rural Australian schools must make decisions regarding their careers and whether they want to migrate to urban areas to complete their education. A study in a small, rural Australian community of the vocational choices of 30 10th-grade students revealed fundamental social differences between working- and middle-class students. (LP) EJ523544

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Tadlock, M., & LoGuidice, T. (1994). The Middle School Concept in Small Rural Schools: A Two Year Inquiry. Paper presented at the Middle School Journal, 26, 1, 3-6 Sep 1994. A survey of representative schools in Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and Illinois showed that most small and rural schools house middle-level students in buildings primarily designed for elementary or high school students. Middle level students often receive an inappropriate educational program that is not taught by teachers trained to understand and address early adolescents' unique physical, intellectual, social, and emotional developmental characteristics. (MLH) EJ490866

Taylor, P., & Mulhall, A. (2001). Linking learning environments through agricultural experience - enhancing the learning process in rural primary schools. International Journal of Educational Development, 21(ER2), 135-148.

Temirov, N. S. (1997). The Life Values of Rural School Students in Uzbekistan. Paper presented at the Russian Education and Society, 39, 10, 21-31 Oct 1997 1997. Explores the value orientations of the rural school students of Uzbekistan by asking the students a variety of indirect questions, such as what their favorite motto in life is. Finds that these students were concerned mostly with social, moral, and spiritual values. (CMK) EJ598172

Templeton, C. J., & Paden, R. A. (20 Mar 1991). Enhancing Curriculum through Technology in the Rural School., 12pp. In: Reaching Our Potential: Rural Education in the 90's. Conference Proceedings, Rural Education Symposium (Nashville, TN, March 17-20, 1991); see RC 018 473. This paper describes uses of technology in a rural school in Mississippi and presents the results of a study on calculator use in mathematics instruction. Computers are used in this district for scheduling, record keeping, and instruction, such as the Writing to Read Program. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics recommends the integration of the calculator into the school mathematics program. A study was conducted with all math students in grades 1 through 12 in a rural school in Houlka, Mississippi to examine the effects of calculator use. Based on a pretest-posttest design, data were analyzed using a correlated t-test for student achievement, an independent t-test for student attitudes, and a goodness-of-fit test for parental attitudes. The students in the control group were taught mathematics in a traditional classroom setting. The experimental group received traditional classroom teaching but instruction was enhanced by the addition of calculators. For the experimental group (allowed to use calculators), there were significant differences between the means of the pretest and posttest in scores for computation and number concept. Significant differences between pre- and posttests were found in total math and math application scores for all grades tested, regardless of whether or not the students were allowed to use calculators. There was a significant difference in student attitudes from pretest to posttest, and changes in parent attitudes. Tables provide data on five participating elementary grades made up of 151 students. (KS) ED342532

Terwilliger, S. H. (1994). Early Access to Health Care Services through a Rural School-Based Health Center. Paper presented at the Journal of School Health, 64, 7, 284-89 Sep 1994. Article examines whether school-based health centers (SBHCs) are available, affordable, community based, and culturally acceptable to the public. A literature review and examination of a rural SBHC for young children suggest that SBHCs are culturally acceptable and accessible to children and families. Ten strategies for successful SBHCs are presented. (SM) EJ495633

Theobald, P., & Howley, C. (1998). Public Purpose and the Preparation of Teachers for Rural Schools. The Teacher educator, 33(3), 150.

Thomas, A. C., & Martin, O. L. (1991). Restructuring Rural Schools with School-Funding Inequities., 14pp. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of Mid-South Educational Research Association (Lexington, KY, November 13-15, 1991). Data tables are not available. This study examines achievement test results for one rural Tennessee school district in the context of national and state educational trends. The data were intended to assist in a 5-year school-improvement program that takes rural revenue constraints into account. Rural restructuring has been hindered in part because of rural communities' limited ability to generate funds. Ongoing inequities have been the subject of conflict in all branches of state government in Tennessee. For this study, 954 elementary and middle-school students were tested with the Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment Program (TCAP), consisting of 8 achievement areas. ANOVA statistical procedures were used to determine the effects of grade levels, teachers, and schools on achievement scores. Results did not show significant differences among teachers and schools, but strongly suggested that higher grade levels had a positive effect on achievement. Mean scores for study skills were consistently lower than other skills. The study concludes that educational attainment can be achieved when students are expected to perform at their grade levels. It is also suggested that educators and parents seek ways to help students develop better study skills. The data do not support the concept of the middle school for transitional reasons. (TES) ED353093

Thurston, L., & Berkeley, T. (1998). Morality and the Ethic of Care: Peaceable Rural Schools, caring Rural Communities. Rural special education quarterly, 17(3/4), 71.

Toepfer, C. F., Jr. (1997). Middle Level School Concerns and Rural School-to-Employment Issues: In Search of Better Ways. Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 13, 1, 28-36 Spr 1997. Examines the need to help rural youth become employable in today's changing circumstances, especially young adolescents in middle school programs. Discusses elements in effective School-to-Employment (STE) programs, basic job skills appropriate to middle-school exploratory STE programs, and the need for program articulation between middle and high school programs. Contains 35 references. (Author/TD) EJ552814

Tuneberg, J. (Apr 1994). Rural School Superintendents' Perception of State Department of Education Influence., 11pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (New Orleans, LA, April 4-8, 1994). A survey of Ohio rural superintendents examined their perceptions of the methods by which the State of Ohio Department of Education influences public school districts. The Power Perception Profile, which classifies power into seven categories, was completed by 63 rural, 53 suburban, and 42 urban Ohio superintendents with reference to the state department of education. Rural superintendents ranked information power as the power method used most frequently by the department, followed by expert, coercive, legitimate, referent, reward, and connection power. Consistency of responses across school district type was high, although urban and suburban superintendents ranked expert power as the most frequently used strategy, and urban superintendents gave reward power a higher ranking than did rural and suburban superintendents. The findings were compared to Etzioni's Compliance Theory, which suggests that administrator use of normative, remunerative, or coercive power will result in predictable subordinate reactions, depending on organization type and other variables. The use of coercive power, as perceived by a large number of superintendents, is incongruous with normative organizations such as schools. Contains seven statistical tables. (SV) ED368539

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Unruh, R., & Lundt, J. C. (1999). Rural School-Community Relationships in North Central Montana: The Role of Schools in Rural Communities. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 21, 1, 15-19 Fall 1999. A telephone survey of 150 north-central Montana rural residents found that they would support increased adult education programs by their schools and more economic and business-related curriculum offerings. Residents of larger towns expressed more agreement with school district consolidation than residents of smaller towns. Implications for rural community and educational leaders are discussed. (Contains 24 references.) (TD) EJ597826

Updegraff, H. (1922). Rural school survey of New York state; financial support. Ithaca, N. Y.,. Lb2825.u7 379.11 Up1 379 379.11 Up1

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Van, A., Curtis, & Schmidt, S. M. (1997). Leadership and Rural School Boards: Utah Data. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 18, 2, 1-4 Win 199 1997. Analysis of minutes of board of education meetings in all 31 rural Utah school districts found that rural boards tended to micromanage their districts, generally ignoring the larger leadership function of building consensus and fostering a sense of community. Discussions of educational reform movements and unstructured discussion with patrons received low priority. Contains 24 references. (TD) EJ539965

Van, A., Curtis. ([1992). A Challenge for School Boards' Leadership in Rural America., 12p. Local boards of education in rural school districts have a unique opportunity to strengthen education through empowering various constituencies. Research shows that people believe in the potential of the local board, but also believe that school boards often fail to move effectively on critical leadership issues. Leadership as a process of empowerment is characterized by clarity of vision, empowerment of subordinates, and emphasis on growth and renewal. This view of leadership suggests changes in the relationship between school boards and superintendents. School boards need to build coalitions and develop linkages among educational professionals, patrons, community and business leaders, and other interested stakeholders involved in the process of educating children. In this leadership role, the board and superintendent can work together toward empowerment of all constituencies. Forming linkages involves written policies that demonstrate congruence of expectations, values, and goals. School boards need to invest time in advocacy, developing goals and strategic planning, promoting cooperation and assertiveness, developing an educational mission, coordinating policy, overseeing functions, and encouraging collaboration. The challenge for the board of education is to develop a perception of its role as the catalyst to empower the teachers, administrators, and community at large to improve the learning environment for all participants. (LP) ED354134

VanSciver, J. H. (1994). Using a Strategic Plan to Promote Technology in Rural School Districts. Paper presented at the NASSP Bulletin, 78, 563, 21-23 Sep 1994. About six years ago, a rural Delaware school district formed a community/staff long-range planning committee to craft a strategic plan that would identify school system values and reallocate resources. As vision and mission statements emerged, technology evolved as a major value, with three goals related to funding and accessibility. Collaborative agreements with Channel One, Rural Vision, and the TI-IN Network have resulted. (MLH) EJ489386

Versteeg, D. (1993). The Rural High School as Community Resource. Paper presented at the Educational Leadership, 50, 7, 54-55 Apr 1993. South Dakota's Rural Schools and Community Development Project was based on the belief that rural schools and communities are tightly linked and highly interdependent. School success is too often measured by how many graduates leave to pursue education or job opportunities elsewhere. (MLH) EJ461135

Verstegen, D. A., & Grider, A. (July 31, 1999). The Impact of School Finance Litigation on Rural and Small Schools/Districts. Final Report. This report describes the legislative response to state supreme court rulings on rural and small schools and districts. The paper addresses the following questions: How have rural and small schools and school districts been affected by state supreme court rulings and subsequent legislation? What has been the experience of rural and small school districts/schools in regard to school-finance litigation in selected states? and What school- finance issues continue to plague rural and small school districts in states where litigation has occurred? The population for the study consisted of those states, from 1989 on, where the supreme court has ruled on the constitutionality of the education-finance system. Three states were then selected for in-depth study. The report is organized into 4 chapters. Chapter 1 provides the results of the survey of the states. It explains how finance systems have changed and looks at additional funding for rural and small and geographically isolated schools/districts. The chapter also describes the effects on transportation, school consolidation, and resource sharing. Chapter 2 discusses the state of Tennessee, whereas chapters 3 and 4 examine the states of Wisconsin and Vermont, respectively. Each chapter outlines the study methodology and provides an overview of the state, which includes a historical perspective on school funding. (Each chapter contains references.) (RJM) ED436853

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Wallin, D. C. P. L. (1999). Succession Management: A Necessary Strategy for Rural School Administration. This paper discusses succession planning for rural educational administrators, focusing on management succession practices, responsibilities, and policies that ensure the efficient and effective transition of rural administrators. In planning their human resources, all organizations must match the needs of the organization with the shifting needs of employees. Given the highly dynamic environment of rural school divisions and the shortage of qualified rural administrators, the planning process for administrative succession is of prime importance. Succession planning promotes continuity of leadership, but the logical link between district objectives and the learning and development of administrators is often absent due to the top-down mechanistic practices generally used in succession planning. A better approach is a continuous improvement process based on individual and organizational learning. A good succession management plan addresses the nature of the rural school system and its attendant role constraints and opportunities for administrators, offers support to administrators, and recruits and develops administrative potential within the system in addition to external recruitment efforts. The work on succession planning should take place on three levels: strategic, managerial, and operational. This paper discusses strategies for succession planning and development, the shift from succession management to career management, and recommendations for succession management policies. An appendix lists advantages and disadvantages of several approaches to matching employees and jobs. (Contains 30 references.) (SV) ED440789

Walters, D. L. P., D. Morgan. (2000). Problems of Rural School Administrators: Are They Complicated by the Multi-School Principalship?, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Rural Education Association (Charleston, SC, October 25-28, 2000). Page Length: 18. A study examined rural school administrators' perceptions of their jobs and how academic achievement and school climate were affected at rural schools that shared principals, compared to rural schools that had their own principal. Sixteen rural school administrators from across the nation were interviewed about their perceptions of their jobs, and data were gathered on academic achievement and teacher perceptions of school climate from 325 Pennsylvania rural elementary schools. Results indicate that administrators value interacting with students and teachers. They are pleased and proud when students are successful; they are frustrated and concerned when students misbehave or are unsuccessful. Rural administrators want to see firsthand what is happening and be able to respond to situations with a direct, personal touch. The principal's role is changing from the traditional directing role to one of facilitating involvement and collaboration. Data from a statewide test of fifth-grade math and reading showed that out of six comparisons between single-school and multischool principalships, five favored the multischool principalship, although only one showed a significant difference. School climate did not differ between single-school and multischool principalships. Graduate programs should provide at least one course on rural school administration. Multischool principals should counter loss of direct involvement by delegating and sharing accountability and responsibility with staff, students, parents, and the community. Appendices present the study population and student achievement and school climate instruments. (Contains 26 references.) (TD) ED447994

Ward, C. (1995). American Indian High School Completion in Rural Southeastern Montana. Paper presented at the Rural Sociology, 60, 3, 416-34 Fall 1995. Factors related to dropping out were examined among Northern Cheyenne and Crow high school students living in three southeastern Montana communities and attending a Catholic school, a public school, or a tribal school. Place of residence, parental educational attainment, and school experiences were important variables, but their effects varied by school. (Author/SV) EJ516769

Warnock, M. M. (1992). After-School Child Care: Dilemma in a Rural Community. Paper presented at the Children Today, 21, 1, 16-19 1992. A rural community established an after-school child care program by forming a community coalition, acquiring funding, obtaining space, and arranging for children's transportation. The program enriched the quality of life for children, parents, and staff. Children's grades improved and the number of mothers satisfied with child care services increased. (SM) EJ458078

Webber, C. F. (1992). Staff Development in a Small Rural School District. Paper presented at the Illinois Schools Journal, 72, 1, 23-34 Fall 1992. Describes a teacher inservice program promoting instructional improvement, more effective schools, improved school climate, and application of current theory in the Nipawin School Division in Saskatchewan (Canada). Results with 49 teachers between 1986 and 1990 suggest positive effects of this 21-day Host Classroom theory, observation, practice, and feedback program. (SLD) EJ460642

Weiler, K. (1994). Women and Rural School Reform: California, 1900-1940. Paper presented at the History of Education Quarterly, 34, 1, 25-47 Spr 1994. Maintains that rural school reform in California between 1900 and 1940 was motivated by many of the same concerns that underlay the national movement to reform rural education. Describes the growth of state control over classroom teachers. (CFR) EJ493966

Wenrich, J. (1997). Making the Connection--A High-Speed Internet Link for Rural Schools. Learning and leading with technology, 25(3), 52.

Wheeler, W. (2000). MARY S. HOFFSCHWELLE. Rebuilding the Rural Southern Community: Reformers, Schools, and Homes in Tennessee, 1900-1930. American Historical Review, 105(5), 1756.

Wieland, R., & Ervay, S. (2000). Improving Rural Schools Through Curriculum Consortia. Rural Educator, 21(3), 17-21.

Wilkinson, W. A. (1917). Rural school management. Boston, New York [etc.]: Silver Burdett & company. Lb1567.w6 379.7 379.173 379.7.W659a

Willardson, J., Koop, K., & MuseGarett. (1998). Impact of Student Fee Amendment on Rural Schools in Utah. The Rural educator, 20(2), 8.

Williams, I., & Thorpe, R. (1998). Small Primary Schools in Rural Wales: Frameworks of Collaboration. Journal of research in rural education, 14(3), 161.

Williams, M. T. ([1990). A Primary Change from Within a Rural Kentucky School District., 15p. This paper describes how a vice principal at a rural Kentucky elementary school successfully implemented curriculum changes to meet the learning needs of young children. The change process also addressed the concerns of kindergarten teachers frustrated with the demands of teaching basal reader activities that eliminated explorative play and other developmentally important activities. Initially, two kindergarten teachers and two administrators attended training sponsored by the Parent and Child Education Program (PACE). PACE advocates the use of the High Scope curriculum, which is based on a child-centered, active-learning approach. By the next school year, classrooms were redesigned and an individualized curriculum was in place. Meetings were held with kindergarten parents to prepare them for program changes. Parents had positive reactions and, after witnessing the benefits of the curriculum, wanted this same approach to carry over to the first grade. Although first-grade teachers were critical of the approach, they agreed to attend training and try some of the advocated practices. The following summer, primary teachers, special education teachers, the school librarian, the curriculum supervisor, and the principal attended training conducted by a certified High Scope certified trainer. Although attitudes of the first-grade teachers presented the biggest impediment to change, faculty from grades K-3 decided to move toward literature-based reading. In 1990, the Kentucky Legislature mandated that all students in grades K-4 not be given standardized tests and that every school move to an ungraded primary model by fall 1992. This move has supported educational change in other Kentucky schools and in addressing the learning needs of young children. (LP) ED374936

Wilson, A. p. H., Paul H. (Oct 1994). The Concepts of Quality for Rural and Small School Decision Makers., 30pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Rural and Small Schools Conference (16th, Manhattan, KS, October 24-25, 1994). This report briefly introduces the ideas of six influential individuals in the field of quality control, and relates these concepts to current educational innovations. Quality is defined by Philip B. Crosby as the result of a culture of relationships within an organization. W. Edwards Deming espouses intrinsic motivation for all employees, consistency of purpose, and consistent quality improvement. Armand V. Feigenbaum proposes integrating quality development, maintenance, and improvement efforts of groups within an organization. Kaoru Ishikawa emphasizes full participatory management. Joseph M. Juran stresses the "project approach" wherein solution schedules are developed as problems are identified. Taiichi Ohno's contribution is to eliminate waste in the deployment of people by developing teams and team leaders. The point is made that systems do not operate in isolation from their host communities. Dr. Deming's PDSA (Plan Do Study Act) cycle is used as an example of a quality process. Seven basic quality control tools and seven management and planning tools are described that help people organize and analyze facts, opinions, and political realities as part of the decision-making process. Total Quality Management is used to examine recent educational initiatives: site-based decision making, effective schools, strategic planning, outcome-based education, and contract schools. The 1993 work "Toward Quality in Education the Leaders' Odyssey," developed by the National LEADership Network study group on restructuring schools, places Deming's 14 points under 8 headings and compares varied educational innovations and initiatives in that context. The total systems approach is urged as the tie used to interface innovations and initiatives that schools and school districts adopt. This paper contains 89 references. (RAH) ED376010

Winn, A., & Olsen, J. (1998). The Use of Manipulatives for Mathematics Learning in Rural School Districts in Illinois. Paper presented at the Illinois Mathematics Teacher, 49, 3, 10-16 Sep 1998. Utilizes a survey to determine the use of manipulatives for mathematics instruction in rural school districts in Illinois. Concludes that the percentage of K-6 teachers using manipulatives for mathematics instruction in the seven rural counties was encouragingly high at 94%. (ASK) EJ598119

Wise, P. S., Cruise, T. K., & Kelly, R. M. (2000). Technology Needs of Rural School Psychologists. Paper presented at the Rural Research Report, 11, 5 Spr 2000 Page Length: 6. A survey of 71 rural Illinois school psychologists examined the frequency of their professional contacts, their level of computer knowledge, and their access to technology. Results indicate that although rural school psychologists serve an average of 1,620 students, practice in an average of 5.5 schools, and work for 2.2 school districts, professional isolation was less pronounced than expected. Two-thirds of the rural school psychologists had face-to-face contact with another school psychologist at least once a week, and half had at least weekly contact with a colleague over the phone or via computer. Most attended local or regional school psychology meetings and the spring convention of the Illinois School Psychologists Association (ISPA). Still, nearly three-quarters of respondents indicated a desire to have additional professional contacts with colleagues. The vast majority had access to a computer at work and at home. Respondents indicated that they possessed the basic computer skills of word processing, test scoring, sending and receiving e-mail, and report writing, but fewer than 20 percent were able to use a listserv, Power Point, or statistical programs. Two-thirds of respondents wanted to know more about using listservs, nearly half wanted to learn to use Power Point, and 40 percent wanted to know more about searching the Internet. Results suggest that local presentations or handouts in the ISPA newsletter would be the best way to provide rural school psychologists with the information they need and want about technology. (TD) ED447987

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Bryant, M. T., & Grady, M. L. (1990). Community Factors Threatening Rural School District Stability. Paper presented at the Research in Rural Education, 6, 3, 21-26 1990. Examines 3 stabilizing principles of small town organization that are intertwined with the survival of local schools: (1) centripetalism (inwardly focused community involvement); (2) inclusiveness of local associations and activities; and (3) distinctive identity. Discusses the effects of state pro-consolidation policies on rural economic development. Contains 20 references. (SV) EJ410821

Yarrow, A., Ballantyne, R., & Millwater, J. (1999). Teaching in Rural and Remote Schools: A Literature Review. Teaching and teacher education, 15(1), 1.

Yarrow, A., Ballantyne, R., Hansford, B., Herschell, P., & Millwater, J. (January 1999). Teaching in rural and remote schools: a literature review. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15(1), 1-13(13). In this paper the authors examine a wide range of recent research into the preparation and support for teachers working in rural and remote schools. The paper reviews many preservice and inservice initiatives which highlight issues affecting teaching and learning in schools outside the major metropolitan centres. The work is reviewed from an Australian perspective but evaluates research from throughout the world. The paper concludes that despite a large body of research (Gibson, 1994), that has identified the need for specialised pre-service preparation which accommodates the social and professional differences associated with work in rural and remote areas, the implementation of such programs by teacher training institutions has been sparse, lacking in cohesion and in many cases non-existent.

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