Rural Schools (2001)

Page Contents

A      B      C      CC      D      E      F      G      H      HH      I      J      K      L      M      N      O      P      R      S      SS      T      U      V      W      Y      Z

A

Agnello-Linden, M. F. (Oct 1991). Alcohol Use and Abuse in a Rural School., 16pp. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the National Rural Education Association (Jackson, MS, October 10-14, 1991). Student responses were elicited in classroom discussions about alcohol use in their own rural community. Teachers and parents responded to questionnaires and interviews concerning various aspects of alcohol consumption as part of the local lifestyle. Students gave reasons for drinking such as ethnic and religious acceptance in the local community, parental permissiveness, and lack of parental supervision. Many students focused on the idea of social drinking as opposed to addictive drinking. They reported a general lack of police enforcement of underage drinking laws. Some students knew serious drinkers and described a family tendency toward alcoholism. Students usually obtained alcohol by asking people to buy it for them or by using fake identification. The 10 teachers interviewed agreed that students began drinking at early ages largely due to peer pressure. Alcohol was seen as readily accessible to teens who had too much idle time. Teachers expressed belief that alcohol affects student performance in school, self-concept, and discipline both at home and in school. There was general consensus that alcohol has profound effects on families, ranging from divorce, uncomfortable home environment, and alienation, to economic instability. Contrary to student and teacher reports, parents reported that they and their children did not drink at home or away from home. Most parents felt that the use of alcohol by youth did affect the family and community, and that the family affected an individual's decision to drink more than other circumstances did. The findings in this study correspond closely with the findings of a state survey of alcohol and drug use in Texas. (KS) ED339580

Allen, M. G., & And, O. (1994). Changing a Rural School to Better Meet the Needs of Its Young Adolescents. Paper presented at the Middle School Journal, 26, 1, 14,18-20 Sep 1994. With administrative support, guidance from Georgia Southern University's middle- grades program, and much hard work, teachers at a rural Georgia elementary school (K-7) have fashioned a developmentally appropriate middle-grades program. The results are greater middle-grade/high school articulation, an exploratory curriculum, differentiated student recognition, socialization activities, and guidance focused on preadolescent problems. (MLH) EJ490870

Alspaugh, J. (1995). Factors Determining Missouri Rural School Districts' Ability to Pay Teachers' Salaries: A Case for Reorganization. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 16, 2, 5-9 Win 199 1995. Small rural school districts in Missouri with low pupil/teacher ratios generate a small amount of revenue per teacher, pay low teacher salaries, and draw a large amount of salary supplement money per teacher. Suggests that districts reorganize into larger units, thereby increasing teacher pay and reducing the need for teacher salary supplement money. (LP) EJ500100

Alspaugh, J. W. (1999 Length: 20 Page(s); 1 Microfiche). School Size as a Factor in Financing Small Rural Schools., Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Montreal, Quebec, Canada, April 1999). This paper examines the effects of enrollment on the financing of small rural K-8 versus K-12 school districts in Missouri and compares the educational outcomes of K-8 and K-12 districts. The sample included 48 K-8 and 48 K-12 districts with K-8 enrollments ranging from 70 to 370 students. Findings indicate that it is more difficult to financially support small rural high schools than small rural elementary schools. Rural districts had limited capability to raise local revenue because of their low assessed valuation per pupil, which was associated with low assessment rates of agricultural real estate compared to residential and commercial property. District expenditures per pupil were below the state average and declined as enrollment increased. The student-teacher ratio was lower in K-12 districts than in K-8 districts; these lower ratios were associated with higher expenditures per pupil, higher operating levies, and lower teacher salaries. All teachers were underpaid relative to the state mean, but teachers in small K-12 districts were paid less than teachers in small K-8 districts. This implies that the conversion of small K-12 districts to K-8 districts may be an effective strategy to improve rural teacher salaries. Compared to state averages, small rural schools had better educational outcomes, suggesting that underfunding and low teacher salaries did not influence educational outcomes. Contains 8 tables, 9 figures, and 12 references. (Author/TD) ED430745

Ambrosie, F., Smith, D., & Joseph, M., Jr. (1999). Indicators of School District Conditions and Performance: What Rural Residents Want To Know about Their Schools. Rural Schools Program, 1998- 1999. A survey of rural New York residents examined community opinions about various traditional and nontraditional school performance criteria that could be used in a local "school report card." Completed surveys were received from 1,821 residents of 29 of the 245 small and rural school districts that participate in the New York Rural Schools Program. Less than 60 percent of respondents felt that it was easy to obtain information about their school or that they were well informed about the school. Bar graphs indicate public opinion about access to information on various aspects of student success, school environment, test results, staffing characteristics, program offerings, facilities information, student services, student characteristics, attendance and discipline, and school finance. Results were compared with those from a similar national survey. New York respondents were most interested in receiving information on student services and standardized test results, while the national sample was most interested in school environment and program offerings. Appendices contain survey letters, the survey questionnaire, and response rates on each survey item for each participating school district. (SV) ED437261

Anglin, J. M., & Piland, D. E. (1995). Reflections of a Rural School Student Teacher. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 17, 1, 27-31 Fall 1995. Analyzes the experiences of a student teacher in a small, rural elementary school in northeastern Ohio. Discusses student teaching and stages of professional developmental growth: uncertainty/nervousness, acceptance/confirmation, autonomy, and affirmation. Addresses implications related to supervision and teacher training programs, specifically in rural and small schools. (LP) EJ518743

Apostal, R., & Bilden, J. (1991). Educational and Occupational Aspirations of Rural High School Students. Paper presented at the Journal of Career Development, 18, 2, 153-60 Win 1991. A survey of 184 rural high school students found no differences in educational aspiration between males and females. Females expressed significantly higher occupational aspirations, in terms of jobs rated highly on the Total Socioeconomic Index 2. (SK) EJ437101

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Bainer, D. L. (1993). Problems of Rural Elementary School Teachers. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 14, 2, 1-3 Win 199 1993. In several studies, elementary school teachers identified problems involving affiliation, control, parent and home relations, student success, and time. Rural and urban elementary teachers reported similar concerns. However, rural teachers reported more problems with student success and control than suburban teachers, whereas suburban teachers focused more on time problems. (SV) EJ463075

Baker, K. N. (1990). Rural School-Based Enterprise: Promise and Practice in the Southeast., 51p. School-based enterprise (SBE) is a hands-on educational program in which students create and manage a business in their community. SBE programs address two general concerns about education todaylack of student motivation and the need for schools to teach students the skills to survive in and contribute to their communities. SBE makes the learning situation more relevant since it is based in the real world of work. Rural communities benefit as students create new jobs that contribute to economic revitalization. To start their own business, students must assess the community to determine what business would be viable, develop a business plan, find loans and financing, begin operations under adult supervision, and evaluate outcomes. Students often take a 2-year SBE core curriculum, which includes a course in small business management. REAL Enterprises, sister organizations in southeastern states that foster SBE programs, have found that projects run more smoothly if students start small, adequate teacher support is available, curriculum guidelines are established, ongoing adult supervision is provided, community support is secured, and supervisors and sponsors refrain from being overly helpful or from "rescuing" projects in trouble. This paper contains 14 references. Appendices summarize SBE program objectives, list "dos" and don'ts" for project success, and briefly describe 25 projects in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. (SV) ED330513

Baker, K. N., & Educational Resources Information Center (U.S.). (1990). Rural school-based enterprise promise and practice in the Southeast. [Research Triangle Park, NC] [Washington, DC]: Southeastern Educational Improvement Laboratory ; U.S. Dept. of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement Educational Resources Information Center. Ed 1.310/2:330513

Baker, M. (1997). The Lady Hastings' charity schools: accounting for eighteenth-century rural philanthropy. History of education, 26(3), 255.

Ballard, C. (1998). Violence Prevention in Georgia's Rural Public School Systems: Perceptions of School Superintendents. Paper presented at the Southern Rural Sociology, 14, 91-109 1998. Survey responses by superintendents in 81 of Georgia's 114 rural school districts covered violence prevention policies; use of searches, videocamera surveillance, metal detectors, security alarm systems, dress codes, and law enforcement officers on campus; incidence of removal of weapons and various forms of violence; student discipline programs; and the relationship of school safety to school size. (Contains 24 references.) (SV) EJ607027

Ballard, C. (1998). Violence Prevention in Georgia's Rural Public Schools: Perceptions of School Superintendents. Southern rural sociology, 14(1), 91.

Barker, B. O., & Dickson, M. W. (1996). Factors in Determining Rural School Readiness to Use Distance Learning. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 17, 3, 14-18 Spr 1996. Presents a series of questions to help rural school administrators assess their readiness to include distance learning as part of the instructional program. The questions address program need or purpose, school resources (human, facilities, and equipment), and selection of distance learning technology system. Lists brief explanations of common distance learning technologies in use. (TD) EJ526521

Barker, B. O., & Hall, R. F. (Oct 1993). A National Survey of Distance Education Use in Rural School Districts of 300 Students or Less., 16pp. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the National Rural Education Association (85th, Burlington, VT, October 14-17, 1993). Distance education technologies can help rural schools overcome the disadvantages of geographic isolation by expanding course offerings and learning opportunities and by connecting teachers with resource materials and training programs. Classroom-focused distance learning is distance insensitive and implies simultaneous instruction of several small groups of students at different sites. Network-focused distance learning, on the other hand, is both distance and time insensitive and connotes the use of information sources such as electronic mail, bulletin boards, and databases. A nationwide survey examined distance education practices at 130 rural K-12 public schools in 32 states. Each school comprised an entire school district and enrolled 300 students or less. Half of the schools received classroom-focused learning programs. Satellite-based delivery was the most commonly used technology, followed by cable television. Secondary students were clearly the target audience, with less than 10 percent of distance learning programs intended for elementary students. Staff development programs were used by many schools but typically did not exceed 15-20 hours per year. Principals indicated that the greatest programming needs were in foreign languages, mathematics, science, and vocational education. Half felt that parents and teachers strongly supported distance learning and that teachers would pursue graduate degree programs through distance learning if available. Includes the survey questionnaire. (SV) ED363491

Barker, B., & Hall, R. (1998). Planning for Technology Implementation in Rural Schools. The Rural educator, 19(3), 1.

Barnes, I. G. (1924). Rural school management. New York,: The Macmillan company. 379.7 379.173 379.7.b262

Barnes, N. D., & Harrod, S. E. (1993). Teen Pregnancy Prevention: A Rural Model Using School and Community Collaboration. Paper presented at the School Counselor, 41, 2, 137-40 Nov 1993. Focuses on efforts in Connecticut to combat teenage pregnancy. Describes a model program that emphasizes a collaborative venture between a state-funded community- based pregnancy prevention program and a regional vocational-technical high school located in a rural setting. Describes Northeast Connecticut Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program and the high school's Contemporary Life Issues Clinic. (NB) EJ473949

Barrow, R., VanZommeren, W., Young, C., & Holtman, P. (2001). School Counselor's and Principals' Perceptions of Violence: Guns, Gangs, and Drugs in Rural Schools. Rural Educator, 22(2), 1-7.

Bates, J. T. (1993). Portrait of a Successful Rural Alternative School. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 14, 3, 20-24 Spr 1993. A case study of a successful alternative school in South Carolina for rural at- risk students suggests that the school exhibits four characteristics of successful urban schools for at-risk students: small class size, caring staff, school as community, and program flexibility. Two other vital features are the leadership role of the principal and a focus on academic achievement. (LP) EJ467648

Beaulieu, L. J., & ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (2000). Rural schools and the Workforce Investment Act. [Charleston, WV: Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools Appalachia Educational Laboratory. Ed 1.331/2:edo-rc-00-9

Beckett, J. (1995). Environmental Education in a Rural 11-16 Comprehensive School. Paper presented at the Environmental Education, 50, 10-11 Aut 1995. Describes a four-phase strategy for integrating environmental education into the broad curriculum and community of a high school. Phase 1, Testing the Water, includes organizing displays and planting trees. Phase 2, Consolidating the Initiatives, involves curriculum development and conservation activism. Phase 3, Partial Integration and Acceptance, includes continued curriculum development and feeder-school connections. Phase 4 is Full Integration. (PVD) EJ546446

Behrens, R. L. (Oct 1992). The Rural Superintendent: The Missing Link in School Improvement., 10pp. Paper presented at the Annual Rural and Small Schools Conference (14th, Manhattan, KS, October 26-27, 1992). Educational research typically overlooks the significance of the superintendent in improvement efforts. The superintendent must not only be a good manager, but must also provide leadership, direction, vision, and purpose, and must establish an atmosphere conducive to learning. Because effective communication is vital, and in order to avoid confusion, the superintendent must also form an administrative team to maximize interaction and create commitment. One of the key elements of superintendent leadership is the search for effectiveness and excellence in the educational program. Effective leadership that produces effectiveness in schools can be accomplished only when the superintendent is fully organized and knowledgeable. The superintendent must evaluate the success or failure of improvement efforts, and be willing to abandon a project when necessary. Superintendents who wish to implement school reform are risk takers who view their job as requiring them to educate community and staff about what is needed and what they should want. This paper contains two figures mapping out superintendent activities and the superintendent's role in instituting reform efforts, and a list of 15 suggestions for superintendents. (KS) ED360111

Beloin, K. (1998). Strategies for Developing Inclusive Practices in Small, Rural Schools. Rural special education quarterly, 17(1), 12.

Beloin, K., & Peterson, M. (1 March 2000). For Richer or Poorer: building inclusive schools in poor urban and rural communities. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 47(1), 15-24(10). Throughout the world, educators are struggling to shift their delivery of services to children with disabilities from a segregated to inclusive approach. This shift creates substantial opportunities and challenges. This is particularly true in poor urban and rural schools. Although our experience is based in rural and urban schools in the United States, we know that poor rural and urban schools throughout the world face similar issues as inclusive education takes hold. This article describes a framework for building more effective and successful schools in poor rural and urban communities called "Whole Schooling." In addition, we identify the multiple barriers to inclusive schools, articulate the commonalties and differences between poor rural and urban schools, and describe specific strategies for utilising available resources to build more effective and successful rural and urban schools in which inclusive education is a central component.

Benham-Deal, T. (1995). Rural School APE: Are We Breaking the Law? Paper presented at the Rural Special Education Quarterly, 14, 1, 45-52 Win 1995. A study of adapted physical education (APE) practices in rural Wyoming revealed that many school districts did not offer APE programs; minimal, if any, specialization was required of APE teachers; larger districts were more likely to employ APE teachers; and there was considerable need for APE teacher training. Contains survey questionnaire and proposed state standards for APE certification. (LP) EJ500116

Berliner, B., Brown, P., Coe, D., & Educational Resources Information Center (U.S.). (1989). Rural schools in California a demographic, economic, and educational state profile. [San Francisco, Calif.] [Washington, DC]: Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development ; U.S. Dept. of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement Educational Resources Information Center. Ed 1.310/2:325273

Berliner, B., Brown, P., Coe, D., & Educational Resources Information Center (U.S.). (1989). Rural schools in Utah a demographic, economic, and educational state profile, 1989. [San Francisco, Calif.] [Washington, DC]: Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development ; U.S. Dept. of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement Educational Resources Information Center. Ed 1.310/2:324173

Betts, G. H. (1913). New ideals in rural schools. Boston, New York [etc.]: Houghton Mifflin Company. Lb1567.b3 379.7

Birch, I., & Lally, M. (1994). Rural Transient Children and School Achievement: An Australian Perspective. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 16, 1, 5-9 Fall 1994. Among 336 students aged 4-8 in 4 rural Australian schools, transient students scored marginally lower on ability tests than their residentially stable peers. However, teachers gave more weight to family background and support, as opposed to disruption of schooling, as influencing children's adjustment to change and school achievement. (LP) EJ495356

Blackmer, L. A. ([1993). Video as a Leadership Tool in a Rural School District. In a rural school district in northern Michigan, video is used as an administrative tool to communicate with board of education members, staff, and students. The great distances between schools makes board visits to areas of interest impractical. The district superintendent uses videos to take the board on tours of facilities so that they can get close-up views of maintenance and renovation problems, and to allow board members to view classroom activities at their convenience. Videos of maintenance problems have also been used to develop priorities for summer maintenance schedules; in one case, such videos led a manufacturer to replace a faulty roof. With regard to the district's team management approach, video provides firsthand observation of problems and issues, allowing the team to reach a common understanding prior to decision making. Video is an inservice tool for presenting information to staff at a fraction of the cost of a formal inservice program. Teacher applicants may send video resumes, complete with demonstrations of teaching effectiveness, or may have a long- distance interview via interactive video. From an instructional point of view, video provides students with another medium to express competency in a given subject area. A student anti-drug advocacy group has used video to inform classmates about problems associated with misuse of alcohol. Administrators have used "hidden" videos to confront students about smoking behavior. (SV) ED357922

Boethel, M. P. L. (1999). Service Learning: A Strategy for Rural School Improvement and Community Revitalization. (Benefits)[Squared]: The Exponential Results of Linking School Improvement and Community Development, Issue Number Two. The future of rural schools is inextricably linked to the future of their surrounding communities, and service learning is a powerful tool for capitalizing on those links. Service learning makes students active participants in service projects that respond to community needs while furthering the academic goals of students. Service learning projects are enormously varied and may address community needs related to health, poverty, social issues, or the environment. Although most projects are implemented in the middle or high school grades, elementary school students can benefit as well. For service learning to be effective, it must be integrated into the school's ongoing curriculum, and the teacher must identify the academic objectives to be addressed through the activity. The teacher's role must change to being an organizer or facilitator, and school schedules and rules must become more flexible to accommodate service learning activities. All school and community participants should agree beforehand on an activity's basic purpose. Service learning benefits students by providing authentic learning relevant to daily life and work, promoting social values and good citizenship, teaching work skills, and improving critical thinking and self-esteem. Various examples of rural service learning projects are described, and five information resources are profiled. (SV) ED445876

Bohrer, S. D. (1998). Politics of Building or Renovating Rural School Facilities., 15pp. Paper presented at the Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities (Kansas City, MO, May 1-2, 1998). While new school construction bond elections for rural school districts can be difficult to pass, success is possible. This paper presents one superintendent's effective campaign to build a $4.2 million elementary school within a rural community. It reveals the need to continually reinforce the message of committing to educational quality combined with productive communication with the school board and continuous efforts to gain community support. Successful school construction bond referendums are shown to have the best chance of success through intense voter registration efforts, continual canvassing, community meetings, and mass mailings to sway public opinion. It is argued that successful passage can also be aided with the creation of a long-range plan designed to convince voters that the need is legitimate.(Contains 12 references). (GR) ED425633 You may be able to order this document from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service.

Boone, M. (1998). Instructional Leadership Practices of Small, Rural School District Superintendents. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 19, 3, 15-19 Spr 1998. A survey of superintendents in 10 small, rural school districts in Texas showed that they gave priority to the following leadership behaviors: (1) focusing all stakeholders' attention on instruction; (2) involving others in instructional planning; (3) communicating high performance expectations; (4) maintaining visibility; (5) supporting principals; and (6) holding principals accountable. (SAS) EJ564457

Boraas, J., & Selke, G. A. (1926). Rural school administration and supervision. Boston, New York,: D. C. Heath. Lb2813.b6 379.7 379.7 b645

Braucht, S., & Weime, B. (1990). Establishing a Rural School Counseling Agenda: A Multiagency Needs-Assessment Model. Paper presented at the School Counselor, 37, 3, 179-83 Jan 1990. Developed creative approach to conduct needs assessment in rural schools that involved sending questionnaires to 49 key informants and 145 high school students. Key informants and students agreed that the 2 most serious issues were alcohol- related problems and family dysfunction (violence, divorce). Both groups indicated need for a teen center; differed in sources of assistance desired and used. (NB) EJ408256

Breckon, S. (1997). Leadership for Changing the Small Rural School: The Excitement of School Improvement., 16pp. Paper presented at the Annual Conference on Rural Education and Small Schools (19th, Manhattan, KS, October 27-28, 1997). This report describes the success of the LaHarpe (Illinois) Community Unit School District in raising student math scores on the Illinois Goal Assessment Program (IGAP). Low IGAP test results and faculty dissatisfaction with scores precipitated the school district to modify the content and delivery of math instruction based on student needs identified in the IGAP test. The traditional textbook approach in the elementary grades and practical math for less able high school students were replaced with "Math Their Way" methods in grade school and a modified 2-year algebra class in high school for those not taking college preparatory math. Junior high school math curricula were modified to include math electives of pre- algebra and algebra in the seventh and eighth grades. Further upgrading at the senior high level included adding calculus to the curriculum. Meetings were held to inform parents of the changes and solicit their cooperation. Over the 6 years of the program (1991-1997), test scores were raised 73 points and exceeded the state average by 31 points. (SAS) ED422139

Building School-to-Work Systems in Rural Areas. Resource Bulletin. (Dec 1996). This bulletin describes practitioner-identified strategies that can help build effective school-to-work systems in rural areas. The first section highlights these strategies for rural school-to-work partnerships: start early; identify educational and economic opportunities in the community; entrepreneurial experiences; community service-learning; computer/technology skills; and build networks among rural schools. Three examples of effective practices are presented: in Rothsay, Minnesota, a community's drive to save its independent school system and reopen its closed hardware store that led to the school board's purchase of the store and replace the high school's business simulation class with the opportunity to run a real business; REAL Enterprises in Oklahoma, a nonprofit organization formed to help rural schools create innovative entrepreneurial education programs; and training students at Rock Creek High School in St. George, Kansas, to install and troubleshoot the school district's computer systems. Contact and address information for the programs is provided. The bulletin then lists six organizations that can provide further information on the topic. Brief summaries describe the organizations' focus and activities. Five resource publications are listed. (YLB) ED407525

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C, d. B., a, Mary Rose, & And, O. (1991). Santo Domingo School: A Rural Schoolwide Project Success. Paper presented at the Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 13, 4 p363-68 Win 1991. The schoolwide project option of the 1988 Hawkins Stafford Amendments to Chapter 1 allowed a rural school serving a disadvantaged Native American population to restructure its compensatory and regular education services. Santo Domingo school (New Mexico) illustrates the ways modifications of federal law and policy benefit children. (SLD) EJ438595

Calam, J., Ed. (1991). Alex Lord's British Columbia: Recollections of a Rural School Inspector, 1915-36. The Pioneers of British Columbia., 204p. Alex Lord, a pioneer inspector of rural British Columbia (Canada) schools, shares in these recollections of his experiences in a province barely out of the stagecoach era. Traveling through vast northern territory, using unreliable transportation, and enduring climate extremes, Lord became familiar with the aspirations of remote communities and their faith in the humanizing effects of tiny "assisted" schools. En route, he performed in resolute yet imaginative fashion the supervisory functions of a top government educator, developing an educational philosophy of his own based on an understanding of the provincial geography, a reverence for citizenship, and a work ethic tuned to challenge and accomplishment. His words portray many of the unusual characters who inhabited this last frontier, along with their hopes, fears, joys, sorrows, and eccentricities. More particularly, Lord's memoirs point out the historical significance of the one-room rural school and its role as an indispensable instrument of community cohesion. The introduction by John Calam includes a biography of Alex Lord, a brief description of the British Columbia he knew, and a sketch of its public education system. Contains references in chapter notes, photographs, maps, and an index. (TD) ED392577

Caldarella, P., & And, O. (1996). The Spread of Youth Gangs into Rural Areas: A Survey of School Counselors. Paper presented at the Rural Special Education Quarterly, 15, 4, 18-27 Fall 1996. A survey of 41 rural high school counselors from eight western states indicates an emerging problem with crime and youth gangs in rural schools and communities. In addition, school counselors do not feel adequately trained or equipped to deal with gang-related activity in their schools. Includes survey questionnaire. (LP) EJ539948

Capper, C. A. (1993). Rural Community Influences on Effective School Practices. Paper presented at the Journal of Educational Administration, 31, 3, 20-38 1993. Explores how rural communities influence school-level processes facilitating effective instruction. Rural community influences on structural aspects of schools (resources, instructional time, curricular emphasis, grouping practices, extra support, and parent involvement) vary, depending on the community's values. Rural communities can both constrain and support commitment to student learning, primacy of teaching, and collaborative teamwork. (Contains 66 references.) (MLH) EJ472550

Carlson, R. V. (1990). A Rural School/Community: A Case Study of a Dramatic Turnaround and Its Implications for School Improvement. Paper presented at the Research in Rural Education, 7, 1, 23-33 Fall 1990. Reversing two decades of school-community turmoil, Valley Viewa small, rural community in northeastern Vermontapproved a bond issue for school construction. This case study uses organizational and systems theory to examine structural, political, symbolic, and human resource influences on changing community attitudes. Contains 19 references. (SV) EJ418889

Carlson, R. V. (1992). A Study of a Rural School/Community Development Effort or What Happens between the Lip and the Cup. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 14, 1, 5-10 Fall 1992. Uses a case study approach to determine how a rural supervisory union school district and its communities attempted to improve the union's economic feasibility and address important school needs. Efforts appear to have resulted in greater teacher involvement, commitment, and ownership of subsequent changes and promotion of teachers to administrative positions. (KS) EJ458168

Case, K. I. (14 Oct 1993). Rural School Reform: Teacher Decision Making and Cognitive Constraints., 20pp. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the National Rural Education Association (85th, Burlington, VT, October 14, 1993). Interviews with 34 teachers at a rural high school in northeastern Connecticut examined cognitive constraints affecting teacher involvement in participative decision making. The principal recently restructured the school in an attempt to ensure teacher decision making. Data collection consisted of a standardized open- ended interview conducted at the school. Teachers perceived that the majority of their decisions were made under cognitive constraints and indicated a lack of adequate information and time. Teachers attributed time constraints to a lack of administrative support. Time constraints caused teachers to become uncertain in their decision making, and the quick changes in the structure of school governance caused confusion for teachers. A teacher coordinator of the new structure believed that the school governance change had occurred too quickly and that faculty felt they were forced to make decisions before they were ready. Other teachers reported operating under "pseudo decision-making," whereby the appearance of decision-making power is provided, but the decision is actually made by the administrator in charge. These results do not support previous research that characterized rural schools as the epitome of school-based decision making. (KS) ED363468

Challman, S. A. (1917). The rural school plant for rural teachers and school boards, normal schools, teachers training classes, rural extension bureaus. Milwaukee, Wis.,: The Bruce publishing company. Lb3209.c4 379.7 379.7 c35

Chalmers, L. (1993). Successful Inclusion in Rural School Settings: How One Rural Minnesota School District Made It Work. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 14, 3, 31-32 Spr 1993. Describes guidelines that a rural Minnesota school district followed to implement inclusion of handicapped students in the regular classroom: administrative support, small-group inservice, floating substitute teachers, ongoing follow-up, ongoing communication, documentation of Individualized Education Plans (IEP), and team teaching. (LP) EJ467650

Chance, E. W., & And, O. ([Oct 1991). Creating an Effective Rural School District: A Case Study., 44pp. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the National Rural Education Association (Jackson, MS, October 10-15, 1991). Research has found that effective schools can be distinguished from less successful counterparts by five characteristics. These are: strong instructional leadership; high expectations for all students to learn; an orderly and positive learning environment; a carefully developed instructional focus; and regular measurement of student learning. Based on these findings, the administrators and teachers of the Little Axe School District, Oklahoma, embarked on an extensive school-improvement program. In 1988-89, they established committees to address the five correlates of effective schools; attended staff development sessions to study the correlates; and developed objectives. During the following 2 school years, staff continued their training; developed an after-school alternative program for suspended students; and implemented a curriculum mapping project. District administrators asked researchers from the University of Oklahoma to examine the impact of the building principal on the effective schools process underway at each of the schools. "Shadowers" followed each principal and the superintendent for an entire day and were privy to all of the day's happenings, making notes of all dialogue with faculty and students (numerous direct quotations are included in the paper). The workload of administrators seemed to be overwhelming. Administrators cited lack of time and maintaining good communication with staff and parents as their chief concerns. Evaluation of the school-improvement program also included interviews with selected staff and students and the administration of the Leadership Practices Inventory to administrators and selected staff. (SV) ED340532

Chance, E. W., & Capps, J. L. ([Oct 1990). Administrator Stability in Rural Schools: The School Board Factor., 24pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Rural Education Association (82nd, Colorado Springs, CO, October 5-8, 1990). This study examines the excessive turnover rate of school superintendents in rural school districts in Oklahoma from the school board perspective. Researchers identified 41 schools that had three or more superintendents in the last 5 years, and had 600 or less students. Telephone interviews of 25 school board presidents focused on personal and board related demographics, community special interest groups, critical problems between the board and superintendent, reasons for the superintendent turnover, and any established criteria for the hiring of new superintendents. The following areas were identified as critical problems that existed between the board and any of the previous superintendents: (1) finance, primarily poor management of funds; (2) integrity, from theft to lying to the board; (3) poor communication skills; and (4) immorality, such as extramarital affairs. Forty-three percent of the 63 superintendents who left the district were either terminated or forced to resign. Twenty-three percent resigned to accept a position in a larger district or one which paid more. The majority of school boards alone interviewed the superintendents, and did not question the applicant's former district or community. Often, inappropriate interview questions were asked, and the "good ol' boy" system used. To increase needed stability in school districts, boards must be more investigative in the hiring process, and state agencies must adopt a proactive attitude to address the issue of ineffective administrators. (KS) ED331681

Chance, E. W., & Neuhauser, M. (1991). Preparing Women and Minorities as Rural School Administrators. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 12, 2, 1-5 Win 199 1991. A nontraditional Master's degree program in educational administration at South Dakota State University was designed to encourage participation by women and minorities. Twenty-four women completed the two-year program, which featured weekend classes, reduced tuition, and special courses focusing on instructional leadership, administrative vision, and networking strategies. (SV) EJ427609

Chance, E., & Cummins, C. (1998). School/Community Survival: Successful Strategies Used in Rural School District Consolidations. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 20, 2, 1-7 Win 1998. Superintendents of nine Oklahoma school districts that voluntarily consolidated were interviewed to identify successful strategies related to teachers, parents and community, students, support staff, administrators, and board members, and to identify unsuccessful strategies. Assuring that students would benefit, addressing job security, and communicating openly were mentioned most often. Contains 25 references. (TD) EJ582500

Chapman, M. (1995). The Aleknagik Project: Cooperative Restructuring of a Rural School Based on a Culturally Sensitive, Integrated Curriculum, an Understanding of Myers-Brigg Learning Styles, and Teacher and Community Empowerment. Paper presented at the ERS Spectrum, 13, 4, 7-15 Fall 1995. A former principal describes how a "problem" rural Alaskan school became a model of positive self-esteem, community involvement, student achievement, and enthusiasm for learning. She discusses problems (cultural dissonance and fragmented curricula), the project's philosophical basis in cultural sensitivity and personality-type theory, the cooperative restructuring process, and project outcomes. (MLH) EJ517758

Cisse, B., Aaby, P., & Whittle, H. (1999). Role of Schools in the Transmission of Measles in Rural Senegal: Implications for Measles Control in Developing Countries. American journal of epidemiology, 149(4), 295.

Clark, G., & Zimmerman, E. (2000). Greater Understanding of the Local Community: A Community-based Art Education program for Rural Schools. Art Education, 53(2), 33.

Clarke, D. C. (7 Mar 1992). Easing the High School to College Transition for Rural Learning Disabled and Other At-Risk College Students: A Three Credit Course Can Make a Difference., 9pp. Paper presented at the International Conference of the Learning Disabilities Association (Atlanta, GA, March 4-7, 1992). This paper describes a course at West Virginia University that teaches academic self-management to beginning university students who have learning disabilities or are otherwise at risk for academic failure. The course uses an integrated approach that emphasizes the development of college study skills, self-management skills, and academic problem-solving skills. The course also acquaints students with support services offered by the university. Titled "Psychology of Academic Self-Management," the three-credit course is taught by a course coordinator or graduate assistants and is staffed by two undergraduate teaching assistants who successfully completed the course the previous semester. For recruitment purposes, the course coordinator sends letters describing the course to eligible incoming freshmen prior to summer orientation sessions, and maintains contacts with academic advisors for referral of potential students. Two case studies are presented of students who attribute their success to the program. (JDD) ED345442

Clyde, M. (1991). Catering for the Needs of Pre-School Age Children in Rural Areas: A Case Study. Paper presented at the Education in Rural Australia, 1, 1, 13-20 1991. Surveyed parents of young children in a rural area of Australia to determine why some children were not sent to kindergarten and to enumerate service delivery preferences of parents with children in kindergarten. Also presented are results of a survey of kindergarten teachers' attitudes toward changes in delivery of kindergarten services. (KS) EJ427635

Cockrell, K. (14 Oct 1991). A Rural Professional Development School: University-School Collaboration in a Multicultural Setting., 14pp. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the National Rural Education Association (Jackson, MS, October 10-14, 1991). The Oklahoma State University Educational Alliance was formed in 1990 to address multicultural issues in a rural setting and provide a multicultural experience for students. This alliance consisted of Oklahoma State University (OSU) College of Education, Frontier Public Schools, and the Otoe-Missouria Tribe. The OSU College of Education is comprised of six academic units having the primary mission of preparing educational personnel. The Frontier Public School District is a consolidated rural school site providing K-12 schooling for approximately 425 students. Fifty-two percent of the student population is of Native American descent; 48 percent is Anglo-American. The Otoe-Missouria Tribe is a federally recognized tribal government with 1,564 members. The combined resources of the alliance created opportunities for developing and implementing innovative programs. These programs' goals included: (1) professional development in a multicultural environment; (2) enhancing knowledge through field site and on- campus work; (3) fostering cooperation between alliance members; (4) enhancing the learning environment of all Frontier Public School students; and (5) increasing knowledge of college faculty of the Native culture and people. In 1990- 91, the Alliance (1) developed a working relationship between the elementary school principal and the tribal child welfare unit; (2) provided OSU students with experience of culturally diverse education by conducting field trips; (3) involved members of the three components of the Alliance in active collaboration; and (4) provided Frontier School teachers an opportunity for graduate study. The OSU College of Education has begun planning additional alliances involving other rural Oklahoma school districts. (LP) ED342519

Coll, K. M., & Ring, E. (1994). A Rural School District-Community Partnership: Collaboration in Alcohol and Drug Prevention Planning. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 15, 3, 1-4 Spr 1994. A rural school-community council identified local risk factors for youth substance abuse, selected prevention strategies related to the risks, and developed objectives and evaluation processes. Community members were presented with the plan and formed a committee to begin implementation. (LP) EJ486972

Collins, R. P. (1996). Rural Education: Clarkton School of Discovery. Paper presented at the Clearing House, 69, 3, 132 Jan-Feb 1996. Describes the Clarkton School of Discovery in Clarkton, North Carolina, a gifted- and-talented magnet middle school that is open to all students in the school district. (SR) EJ529116

Collins, T. (August 1999). Crucial Policy Links: Rural School Reform, Community Development, and Citizen Empowerment., Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Rural Sociological Society (Chicago, IL, August 4-8, 1999). This paper lays out a rationale for building local rural development policies that focus on potential strengths of school-community relationships, while empowering local citizens. Rural communities and their schools are caught up in trends that complicate policy at all levels. These trends include changes related to national and global economic restructuring, devolution of government, and systemic education reform based on higher standards and accountability. The rural school-community relationship is crucial to community sustainability. In rural communities buffeted by changes that have depleted capital, tax bases, institutional resources, and population, schools may be one of the few remaining vital institutional forces. Despite the perils and problems, the confluence of economic restructuring, government devolution, and systemic school reform offers schools and communities an opportunity to form new relationships based on their mutual dependency, the promise of improved quality of life, democratic ideals and practices, and the urgency of community survival. Rural school officials and community leaders must cooperate in formulating holistic community-development policies that address local needs, include diverse citizen participation, and build community capacity to enhance democratic processes. School governance is already changing, as efforts to increase accountability demand meaningful community engagement. In their role as a local institution, schools must also become community centers that engage the whole community in their operating decisions, services, and programs. Conversely, rural communities must use schools as democratizing institutions that train adaptable citizens and workers to sustain community life in an uncertain future. (Contains 41 references.) (SV) ED437263

Collins, T., & Educational Resources Information Center (U.S.). (1999). Crucial policy links rural school reform, community development, and citizen empowerment: paper presented at the annual meeting of Rural Sociological Society, Chicago, Il, August 4-8, 1999. [Washington, DC]: U.S. Dept. of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement Educational Resources Information Center. Ed 1.310/2:437263

Colwell, B., & And, O. (1995). Opinions of Rural Texas Parents Concerning Elementary School Health Education. Paper presented at the Journal of School Health, 65, 1, 9-13 Jan 1995. Parents of elementary students in rural Texas completed surveys about their attitudes toward and knowledge of comprehensive school health education. Results indicated parents widely supported health education, with alcohol, drugs, nutrition, and first aid being the topics they considered most important. (Author/SM) EJ504239

Compton, B. B., & Hughes, J. (Mar 1990). Reducing Rural School Dropout through the Adolescents-in-Need Model., 10pp. Paper presented at the Rural Education Symposium of the American Council on Rural Special Education and the National Rural and Small Schools Consortium (Tucson, AZ, March 18-22, 1990). Based in rural northern Orange County (North Carolina), the Adolescents-in-Need Project began in 1981 as a joint effort of the school district, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, and community agencies. Project goals focused on preventing untimely events in the lives of teenagers, and included helping adolescents to delay first or repeat pregnancy, complete their education, develop lifestyle and parenting skills, and secure safe nurturing living arrangements. Referrals were made on the basis of expressed concern and did not require explicit definition. From 1981 to 1988, the county pregnancy rate for 15- to 19-year-olds dropped from 6.2% to 4.2%, while the school dropout rate improved from 10.5% to 6.7%. Over 60% of the high-risk adolescents served by the project remained in school; among dropouts, 5% obtained a GED and 57% found productive employment. Major program strategies aimed at: (1) improving communication and negotiating conflicts between teens and their parents; (2) developing a close working relationship with the school system; (3) identifying community services and improving access to services for adolescents; (4) involving male partners of pregnant teens and teen mothers; (5) improving day care services for teen mothers attending school; (6) assisting teens to find employment; (7) assisting with transportation; (8) coordinating with special programs available to adolescents; and (9) providing one-on-one time and support to teen mothers and developing peer support groups. (SV) ED337324

Coulon, S. C., & Reif, G. (1994). Elementary Physical Education: A Rural School District's Perspective. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 15, 3, 13-17 Spr 1994. Teachers, students, and parents surveyed in a rural school district regarded elementary physical education programs as important but inadequate. A university- school collaboration assisted classroom teachers in redesigning the physical education curriculum and included consultation services in the form of school visitations and follow-up inservice training. (LP) EJ486975

Cross, J. (2001). Rural Schools, Long Overlooked, Gain Elusive Victory. School Administrator, 58(3), 63-65.

Cuban, L. (1995). "The Life and Death of a Rural American High School: Farewell Little Kanawha," by Alan DeYoung. Book Review. Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 11, 2, 121-24 Fall 1995. Reviews a book about the history of a small rural school in Braxton County, West Virginia. Argues that consolidation and eventual closure of this school resulted from political, economic, social, and cultural forces that failed to recognize the important relationship between the school and the community. Reflects on the reviewer's own previous assumptions about consolidation benefits. (LP) EJ520527

Cummins, C., Chance, E. W., & Steinhoff, C. (1997). A Model for Rural School Consolidation: Making Sense of the Inevitable Result of School Reform., 30pp. In: The Many Faces of Rural Education. Proceedings of the Annual NREA Convention (89th, Tucson, AZ, September 24-27, 1997); see RC 021 239. Passage in 1989 of Oklahoma's education reform bill, H.B. 1017, provided encouragement and financial rewards for use of consolidation as a reform strategy, but this approach is often met with anxiety and hostility from stakeholders. In an effort to identify strategies that facilitate consolidation, semistructured interviews were conducted with the superintendents of 16 rural Oklahoma school districts that had participated in 8 voluntary consolidations. The superintendents discussed strategies used to enhance the consolidation process for teachers, parents and community, students, support staff, administrators, and board members, as well as strategies that proved unproductive. Thirteen successful strategies were identified. Addressing the number one staff issuejob securityall eight consolidated districts guaranteed the positions of administrators and support staff, while five new districts retained their entire teaching staff. Keeping staff informed and providing employee displacement compensation were other staff strategies. Maintaining all school sites greatly enhanced the consolidation process for students and community members; this was accomplished in six consolidations. Other student and community strategies included community meetings, media releases, focus on the student benefits of consolidation, and joint student-body activities. Administrative issues were addressed through preconsolidation administrative appointments, joint board meetings, extensive planning, and state assistance. Contains 25 references and 16 data tables. (SV) ED413148

Curran, J. A. (1996). Using the Internet To Improve the Resources of a Rural High School Media Center., 92pp. Ed.D. Practicum, Nova University. This project was designed to bring the resources of the Internet to a rural high school through the school's media center and to provide training to enough of the faculty and students to facilitate its use. A flexible program for five academic departments requiring only one meeting of each department and utilizing written worksheets geared to four areas of the Internet, Gopher, Telnet, FTP, and the World Wide Web, was designed. Using the SouthEastern Resources Vision for Education as an Internet provider, 18 teachers, an aide and selected students were guided through a 25-week program of Internet basics through self- and individual-guided instruction. A report to the whole faculty and a web page for the school rounded out the project. As a result of the project, resources of the media center were significantly increased and students and teachers were instructed on Internet use. With 58 students responding to a posttest survey on online research, only 24 reported research success more than half the time. Twenty-one of 30 teachers reported success more than half the time. Another result of the project was the addition to the media center of three multimedia encyclopedias and the accessibility of Britannica Online to users. An 18-page report describing the instructional program and giving an extensive list of useful Internet sites was distributed to the entire faculty. In addition, a web homepage was launched, serving as a menu to connect all the most useful areas of the Internet. The survey, Internet search checklist, sample activity sheets, and report to faculty are appended. (Contains 50 references.) (AEF) ED411782

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Danzig, A. (1996). Rural Dilemmas in School-to-Work Transition: Low Skill Jobs, High Social Demands. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 17, 3, 26-34 Spr 1996. Thirty-three employers in rural Arizona were interviewed concerning employer expectations, workplace opportunities, authority patterns, rewards, and social interaction at work regarding entry level workers directly out of high school. Available work was low skill with few rewards, yet demanded strong social skills and work ethic. Discusses implications for young workers and schools implementing the Schools-to-Work Act. (TD) EJ526523

Dayton, J. (1998). An Examination of Judicial Treatment of Rural Schools in Public School Funding Equity Litigation. Journal of education finance, 24(2), 179.

Demchak, M. (1993). Training Administrators of Rural School Districts to Improve Programs for Students with Severe Disabilities. Paper presented at the Rural Special Education Quarterly, 12, 3, 18-22 1993. The pyramid model of staff training provides rural school districts with a practical low-cost solution to the problem of underqualified teachers of students with severe disabilities. In this model, special-education administrators or supervisors receive training in program improvement, train teachers in their districts, and provide ongoing supervision and feedback in the classroom. (SV) EJ473337

Devlin-Scherer, R. (1994). Peer Leadership in a Rural School Setting. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 15, 3, 22-24 Spr 1994. Describes a peer leadership program implemented at a small rural Vermont school that grouped junior high students identified as having social skill problems with model high school students for activities such as field trips, challenge games, and community service projects. As a result, referrals for disciplinary action decreased among junior high students. (LP) EJ486977

Devlin-Scherer, R. (1997). Peer Leadership in a Rural School Setting., 15p. This paper describes the training of a high school assistance team designed to guide younger students. The program, which was directed at students in grades 7 and 8, lasted for 1 year and involved students in community service and challenge activities. The setting was a small rural school in Vermont, with nearly 400 students in grades 7-12. Teachers had become concerned that the needs of all students were not being addressed at the school, arising in part from a lack of connectedness. It was suggested that high school students could serve as role models to the younger students and external funding was secured to initiate a training program for these student mentors. Following a careful selection process, 20 high school students, 4 teachers, and a guidance counselor met with trainers in two full days of training sessions. Some of the activities, which were intended to help the younger students, included field trips with peer leaders, challenge games, and a service project designed to assist the elderly. Results indicate that peer leaders experienced success in the leadership roles given them. The 30 at-risk students also improved, with improved attention, attendance, and grades. (RJM) ED412484

Dewees, S. P. L. (2000). Participation of Rural Schools in Comprehensive School Reform Demonstraton Program: What Do We Know? The federal Comprehensive School Reform Demonstration (CSRD) program provides incentives for high-poverty schools to pursue reform. In fiscal years 1998-99, $120 million, or 83 percent of total CSRD funds, was made available to states to target Title I schools serving disadvantaged students. Of the 1,748 schools participating in CSRD, over 85 percent received Title I funds and almost two thirds were Title I Schoolwide Program grantees. It has been suggested that rural school participation in CSRD may be hampered by such barriers as geographic isolation and lack of staff. This paper examines the distribution of CSRD funds across the rural-urban continuum, both overall and for high-poverty schools (schools with 50% or more of their students participating in the free and reduced lunch program). Data were drawn from a database on school participation in CSRD, and the rural-urban location of schools was based on the Johnson Locale Codes used by the U.S. Department of Education. The data indicate that: (1) rural high-poverty schools were funded by CSRD at a slightly lower rate than total rural schools; (2) students in rural high-poverty schools were served at a slightly higher rate than students in total rural schools; (3) the largest CSRD grants went to urban schools due to their larger size; and (4) compared to urban schools, rural schools funded by CSRD had fewer students but more money per student to implement reform. Appendices outline issues related to rural school participation in CSRD and define the Johnson Codes. (SV) ED445875

Dewees, S., & Earthman, G. (2000). Trends and Issues Affecting School Facilities in Rural America: Challenges and Opportunities for Action., Chapter 1 in: Improving Rural School Facilities: Design, Construction, Finance, and Public Support; see RC 022 640. Page Length: 21. School facilities needs in rural America and the means to meet them are affected by rural population trends, building inadequacies and obsolescence, and financial problems. Overall, America's schools have seen increased public school enrollments since the mid-1980s, but rural enrollments have declined, particularly in communities with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants. However, rural population trends vary greatly across and within states. Long-term underinvestment in school facilities has left a legacy of crumbling school buildings in many communities. In 1996, 52 percent of rural schools had at least one inadequate building feature, and 54 percent had at least one unsatisfactory environmental factor. In addition, older rural schools had great needs to improve energy efficiency, upgrade the building infrastructure that supports new technology systems, provide flexible spaces to accommodate new teaching formats and expanded school services, and meet access requirements for individuals with disabilities. Because rural districts have lower enrollments, inadequate tax bases, and regulatory limits to their debt, they often cannot generate the revenues required to build school facilities. In addition, many have higher poverty levels and less ability to support local bond initiatives. Practical strategies for funding rural schools include state capital funding, state building authorities, interest-free or tax-credit bonds, converting vacant buildings, and increasing support through lobbying and public awareness campaigns. (Contains 30 references.) (SV) ED445856

Dewees, S., Ed., & Hammer, P. C., Ed. (2000). Improving Rural School Facilities: Design, Construction, Finance, and Public Support., For individual chapters, see RC 022 641-647. Page Length: 128. While the condition of rural school facilities varies across the country, most rural school districts face similar issues as they consider new facility construction, renovations, or additions. These issues are how to gain public support for funding, how to make the best use of local resources, how to design buildings that meet a variety of community needs, and how to design facilities that optimize instruction and use of technology. This book contains seven edited papers presented at the National Working Conference on Improving Rural School Facilities, held in Kansas City (Missouri) in March 1998. The papers are: (1) "Trends and Issues Affecting School Facilities in Rural America: Challenges and Opportunities for Action" (Sarah Dewees, Glen Earthman); (2) "Financing Facilities in Rural School Districts: Variations among the States and the Case of Arkansas" (Mary F. Hughes); (3) "Preserving Heritage While Restoring and Improving Facilities: A Rural Community's Experience" (Burton Edward Dickerson); (4) "Creating Technology Infrastructures in a Rural School District: A Partnership Approach" (Dennis Jensen); (5) "Gaining Rural Community Support for a Bond Issue: A Superintendent's Experience" (Stephen Dean Bohrer); (6) "Maintaining Respect for the Past and Flexibility for the Future: Additions and Renovations as an Integrated Sequence" (Dan Swedberg); and (7) "Managing the Rural School Facility Construction Process" (Angelo Passarelli, Wade Goehring, Anne Harley). (Contains references in each chapter.) (SV) ED445855

DeYoung, A. J. (1998). Parent Participation, School Accountability and Rural Education: The Impact of KERA on School Consolidation in Kentucky., 31pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Diego, CA, April 14-17, 1998). This paper discusses the Kentucky Education Reform Act (KERA) and its impact on school facilities planning and community involvement in related decision making. Since 1900, the pattern of rural school reform, nationally and in Kentucky, has been one of increased state and federal control, with cost effectiveness and equity the primary criteria in setting school budgets. As a result, school districts in Kentucky declined from over 1,000 to 176. School buildings, despite increasing enrollment, declined from over 8,500 to fewer than 1,400. Changes in the way school facilities are improved or closed have come about indirectly from KERA. KERA was enacted in 1990 in response to a class action fiscal equity suit, and replaced all previous educational legislation. In addition to fiscal and curricular reforms, KERA mandated governance reforms that include site-based decision making, state-level administrative reorganization, and revision of the state school facilities manual (the "Grey Book"). The Grey Book had frequently forced consolidation by focusing almost exclusively on economies of scale criteria and forbidding state aid for facilities construction or repairs when those criteria were not met in every building in a school district. The obvious contradictions between the Grey Book and KERA's site- based decision making led to new facilities criteria. However, there remains a cost to those districts retaining very small schools. Case studies of proposed school closings and consolidation in Henderson and Floyd Counties illustrate the revised facilities planning process but also show how local political dysfunction can overwhelm even the best schools. KERA's decentralized and participatory decision-making model may not be applicable in other states, and it is too soon to see if it will make profound differences in Kentucky. But the opportunities in KERA for accommodation of small rural schools and parent participation should be useful to small-school advocates elsewhere. (SAS) ED421314

DeYoung, A. J., & Howley, C. B. (16 Mar 1992). The Political Economy of Rural School Consolidation., 49p. This paper argues that social, political, and economic circumstances provide better explanations of rural school consolidation than the advertised curricular, pedagogical, or administrative benefits. Modern views of schooling over recent decades emphasize economic development and the need to improve international competitiveness. There is a distinction between "schools" (important places in which people construct a social reality) and "schooling" (an attempt at systematic instruction of knowledge). Historically, rural Americans valued schools as sites for community activities. Eventually, reformers took the communities out of schools and championed the "scientific" and "professional" views of schooling. Despite research advocating small schools and breakthroughs in distance learning, rural school closings continue. To explain the perpetuation of school closings, three theoretical interpretations suggest that an ideology of economic development and social progress influences both the organization of schooling and the predetermined purposes of instruction. First, the classical theories construe economic development as inherently benign. Second, in a "citizenship" perspective, schools become sites for the exercise of the legitimated authority of the state. A third set of theories includes predictable periods of crisis that compel the state to take extreme action. Changes in the political economy of West Virginia have led to recent crises in legitimation and subsequent school consolidations. (KS) ED347018

Dickerson, B. E. (1998). Community Involvement for Improving Rural School Facilities., 28pp. Paper presented at the Invitational Conference on Rural School Facilities (Kansas City, MO, May 1-2, 1998). Community involvement in rural school facilities improvement projects is significant to the success of these projects. While literature regarding school-community partnerships and citizen involvement in school construction projects appears to be ample, writing which specifically addresses community involvement in rural school facilities is far less common. This report examines the community-school relationship in a rural school facilities improvement project in Waitsburg, Washington. It offers a brief review of relevant literature and then takes an indepth look at the Waitsburg community's role in their facilities improvement project. The project included the complete renovation and restoration of a historic school building to serve as a junior high facility and the remodeling and new construction required to upgrade the elementary school building. The report shows the importance of having positive contributions by community groups and individuals in completing these projects. It further reveals how productive involvement in school district operations is fostered through open communication, responsiveness to community wishes, and the creation of a sense of community ownership. (Contains 23 endnotes and 27 references). (G R) ED425628 You may be able to order this document from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service.

Dietrich, J. E. K. (1994). McHenry Day: Celebration of Rural School Culture. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 15, 3, 18-21 Spr 1994. Teachers at a rural elementary school slated for consolidation, worked with teacher education students during a full-day teaching experience that resulted in both classroom teachers and university students expanding their understanding of the teaching culture. The benefits of this experience included easing teacher transition to a new school culture. (LP) EJ486976

Dietrich, J. E. K. (Sep 1992). A Day in the Life of a Rural School. Paper presented at the Insights into Open Education, 25, 1 Sep 1992 Sep 1992. This paper describes the field experience of 30 undergraduate students in a teacher education program at the University of North Dakota. As part of an introductory teaching and learning course, teacher education students prepared for and taught elementary students in a small, rural school for one-day. The school enrolled 80 children in kindergarten through 4th grade and a combined class of 5th and 6th grades. There were six teachers and a principal who taught in the afternoon in the combined 5th and 6th grade class. Prior to the field experience, college students collaborated with classroom teachers in preparing the schedule for the day and developing learning activities on environmental themes. Students were required to write lesson plans for each learning activity and were encouraged to try out a variety of teaching methods including cooperative learning, learning centers, active learning, interactive techniques, and interdisciplinary methods. Students' narratives and papers about their field experience indicated they gained insight into the complexity of teaching; related their success and confidence to being prepared; realized the importance of planning but understood necessary adaptations to circumstances; and gained knowledge and experience in interacting with children. This field experience introduced beginning teacher education students to the complexity of teaching and to the roles of teachers and students in this process. (LP) ED352239

Dillon, K. (1997). Serving the Professional Information Needs of Rural Secondary-School Teachers in New South Wales, Australia. Paper presented at the School Library Media Quarterly, 25, 3, 171-76 Spr 1997. Describes a study that examined the professional information needs of rural secondary school teachers in New South Wales (Australia). Concludes that teacher librarians have a pivotal role in meeting information needs, and that computer networks provide a means of overcoming the teachers' professional and geographical isolation. (LRW) EJ546215

Din, F. (1997). The Inclusion Practice in Kentucky Rural Regular Schools. The Rural educator, 19(2), 6.

Din, F. S. (1997). The Operations of Kentucky Rural School Councils., 24pp. In: The Many Faces of Rural Education. Proceedings of the Annual NREA Convention (89th, Tucson, AZ, September 24-27, 1997); see RC 021 239. School councils, a school-based decision making (SBDM) form of governance, are mandated for Kentucky public schools by the Kentucky Education Reform Act (KERA). Commonly composed of the principal, three teachers, and two parents, the school council is designed to be a form of democratic or shared school governance. The missions of school councils are prescribed in KERA and include the areas of instruction, administration, and personnel. A random survey of 252 Kentucky rural schools was conducted to investigate what missions their school councils undertook, what benefits these schools had gained from SBDM, and what problems the councils were facing. From the 132 school councils that responded, it was found that approximately 20 percent of the school councils undertook all missions specified by the law, and the majority of councils undertook most missions. Some of the missions were undertaken by various district offices, principals, or school committees. The schools had benefited from their councils making concrete policies, promoting communication, addressing student needs, identifying priority problems, reviewing curriculum, selecting personnel, and using resources efficiently. Main problems included lack of staff and parental involvement, poor understanding of legal requirements, weakness in coordinating committees, short- term vision, time constraints, unequal membership status, lack of focus on instruction-related matters, lack of efficiency, functioning as a rubber stamp, little contribution from parent members, and lots of politics on councils. Contains 22 references and the survey questionnaire. (Author/TD) ED413146

Din, F. S. (1998). The Functions of Class Size Perceived by Chinese Rural School Teachers., 15pp. Paper presented at the Research Forum of the National Rural Education Association (Buffalo, NY, October 14-18, 1998). A survey containing open-ended questions about class size was distributed to teachers in five schools (3 elementary and 2 secondary) in a rural school district in south China. Responses were received from 55 of 100 teachers surveyed; all had 5 or more years of teaching experience. A class of 50 or more students was considered large, while one with 30 or fewer students was considered small. Virtually all of the teachers preferred smaller classes, but did not regard them as necessarily related to student achievement. Smaller classes were seen as being easier to manage, allowing individualized help to students, facilitating teaching effectiveness, and requiring less work by teachers. The teachers considered outside influences of society and home, as well as the learning atmosphere of school and class, to be important factors in learning outcomes. The teachers tended to encourage competition among students and to create competitive class activities, which they believed facilitate achievement. However, they also believed that peer help was important for student success in large classes. Contains 20 references and an English translation of the questionnaire. (SV) ED424045

Din, F. S. (1998). The Operations of Kentucky Rural School Councils. Paper presented at the Rural Educator, 20, 2, 15-19 Win 1998. A survey of 127 rural Kentucky school councils found that more parent members than teacher members held positive views about their school-council performance, and more teacher members than principals had such opinions. Members indicated main benefits to the school from council performance and main problems faced by school councils. Contains 22 references. (TD) EJ582503

Doggett, S., Wilson, H., Colorado Historical Society. Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation., & National Register of Historic Places. (1999). Rural school buildings in Colorado: multiple property listing. [Denver, Colo.: State Historic Preservation Office Colorado Historical Society. Hed6/50.2/r35/1999

Dror, Y. (1993). The New Rural School in Upper Galilee (Eretz, Israel) at the Beginning of the 20th Century. Paper presented at the Journal of Research in Rural Education, 9, 3, 179-90 Win 1993. Proposes a model for rural education based on the progressive practices of a rural school in Israel in the early 1900s. Desirable characteristics of rural education are organized into four innovative educational models: education for work (including agricultural education); community education; social-ideological education; and curricular autonomy of the teacher and school. Contains 58 references. (KS) EJ484076

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Abel, M. H., & Sewell, J. (1999). Stress and Burnout in Rural and Urban Secondary School Teachers. Paper presented at the Journal of Educational Research, 92, 5, 287-93 May-Jun 1999. Surveys of rural and urban secondary teachers examined teacher stress and burnout. Urban teachers experienced significantly more stress from poor working conditions and staff relations. In both types of schools, student misbehavior and time pressures caused the highest stress. Working conditions and time pressures predicted burnout for rural teachers. Student misbehavior and working conditions predicted burnout for urban teachers. (SM) EJ594196

Eaton, T. H. (1922). Rural school survey of New York state; vocational education. Ithaca, N. Y.,. 371.42 371.42 Ea86

Ediger, M. (1994). Oral Communication Skills in the Rural School. Each student needs to achieve optimally in oral communication. The rural student should have ample opportunities to experience quality learning activities in communicating with others. First, pupils should have ample opportunities to practice making introductions. In society, people are introduced to each other. It is important to make the introductions properly so that enjoyable conversation might follow. Second, an excellent activity to stress is extemporaneous speaking. A learner should be given a topic and have to supply the content in a short period of time, say, 10 minutes. Third, pupils should select a poem to be read to the class. Fourth, rural learners should engage in debates. Debating can definitely lead to higher levels of thinking such as critical and creative thought. Sixth, students, when reading aloud out of the basal reader, should be instructed to read in an audience-centered manner. Seventh, rural pupils should write their own poems and read them to the class. Eighth, pupils should have ample opportunity to engage in creative prose writing. Ninth, practical writing is a must for all rural learners. Functional situations should be stressed. Thus, if pupils are practicing writing a friendly letter, the contents should be mailed or exchanged with classmates. (TB) ED378621

Ediger, M. (1994). Reading and the Rural School Pupil. The rural school teacher needs to be certain that pupils are attaining the skills needed in reading to be successful in the world of work or postsecondary education. A major source of problems for rural pupils is that many lack background information in order to attach meaning to what is being read. Adequate attention must be given to pupils developing necessary skills in meaningful reading of abstract words. To attain usable background information, teachers may use clear pictures that relate to what rural pupils will be reading, followed by a discussion of the illustrations so that the pupils will attach meaning to the content being read. If pupils secure the necessary background information prior to reading subject matter, they will become increasingly proficient in word recognition and identification. From the completed reading activity, the rural school pupil must be able to make use of content acquired. The result of separating facts from opinions, reality from fantasy, and accurate from the inaccurate is critical thinking. Being good readers assists rural school pupils to achieve objectives that are vital for their long-term goals. (RS) ED365937

Ediger, M. (1994). The Writing Curriculum in the Rural School. Writing, one of the three r's, must receive major emphasis in teaching-learning situations. Writing should permeate all curriculum areas. Both practical and creative writing need adequate emphasis. The student should be involved in selecting objectives, learning opportunities, and appraisal procedures. The writing teacher then becomes a guide, stimulator and resource person. Creative writing must place adequate emphasis on the poetry facet of the curriculum. The teacher needs to read orally to learners diverse kinds of poetry. Students should then have adequate chances to read these same kinds of poetry. Also, students need to experience that which is understood and comprehended. Rote learning and memorization do not harmonize with creative endeavors. Learners must make sense from what is being studied. For example, if students are studying the writing of tall tales, they must realize what encompasses this type of creative writing from other kinds of prose. Further, to develop interest in writing, the teacher must use procedures in teaching which cause students to attend and establish set. The learner and the curriculum must become one and not separate entities. Some possible exercises are the following: (1) students brainstorm a superhuman person by viewing an illustration showing a person at work; (2) students tell about a task that seemed impossible to complete; (3) students explain how in supernatural ways the task was completed. Rural school pupils need to attain optimally in the writing curriculum. (TB) ED378585

Ediger, M. ([1991). Language Arts in the Rural School. The background experiences of the rural student provide a wealth of ideas that can be expressed through poetry writing. Poetry forms which can be taught in the language arts class, or throughout the curriculum are: (1) the couplet, which contains two lines with ending words rhyming; (2) the triplet, which contains three lines with all ending words rhyming; (3) the quatrain, which contains four lines with diverse patterns of ending words rhyming such as line one with line three and line two with line four; (4) limericks, which have one set of rhymes for lines one, two, and five, and a different set of rhymes for lines three and four; (5) haiku, which has five, seven, five syllables respectively for its three lines; and (6) the tanka, which has a 5-7-4-7-7 progression of syllables per line, making a five-line poem. Language arts instruction for rural students should emphasize creativity. Creativity brings new ideas to modify, change, and improve the societal arena. As achievement progresses, students may wish to add alliteration, onomatopoeia, metaphors, and similes within a poem. (KS) ED331661

Eells, H. L., Moeller, H. C., & Swain, C. C. (1924). Rural school management. New York, Chicago [etc.]: C. Scribner's sons. Lb1567.e4 379.7 379.173 379.7 Ee55

Egelson, P. E. (15 Apr 1993). Change for Worse? One Teacher's Experience of Rural School Consolidation., 14pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Atlanta, GA, April 12-16, 1993). Motivated in part by impending consolidation, a Chapter I reading teacher in an economically depressed rural community asked her middle-school students (n=30) to interview one person who had attended a community school in the past. Questions centered around school buildings, teachers, classes, and special activities. The students read the questions to the interviewees and wrote down their responses. Students put the responses in paragraph form and discussed the results in class. Comments about the school buildings suggested that school maintenance was poor and there was a lack of money. Positive responses about community schools involved school values and rituals, and specific memories of things such as cafeteria food, teachers, and activities. One respondent recalled integration during the 1960s as a "wonderful time". There were hints that the quality of education received at community schools was not always the best. Local middle school and high school students now attend large consolidated schools with more class offerings, newer facilities, and the latest in technology. Nevertheless, although these students are surrounded by people, they go through school alone with no sense of community to guide them. Despite poor school conditions and the lack of resources, students and teachers in the community schools of the past knew each other, learned together, and felt secure in their environment. (KS) ED362351

Ehrich, R. W., McCreary, F., Reaux, R., Rowland, K., & Ramsey, A. (1998). Home-School Networking To Support Constructivist Learning in a Rural Elementary School: Lessons from Families, Schools, and Researchers., 11pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Diego, CA, April 13-17, 1998). The U.S. Department of Education is supporting a 3-year program involving Virginia Tech's computer department and a rural public elementary school. The project seeks to determine whether immersive access to networked computing by students and their families has measurable effects on long- term student achievement. A fifth-grade classroom was designed with a networked computer for every two students; the university is lending a computer for an extended time period to the family of each participating student. After training together, fifth-graders (randomly selected) work with parents on a child-centered curriculum that encourages reading, writing, exploration, collaboration, and critical analysis. Two control groups are used to assess long-term effects on student achievement. Preliminary findings suggest that the PCs for Families Program is well- regarded by both parents and children. Many children are strongly influenced by the program, and most experienced a renewed connection to learning. The technology has not built social capital, but helps families predisposed to active involvement. Researchers were unprepared for some families' weak parenting abilities and lack of competence. Next year, the program will stress family integration and parenting skills. Key program elements are discussed. (MLH) ED422614

Elam, C., Hughes, S., & Goodman, N. (2001). A Collaboration Workshop to Prepare High School Students for Medical Careers: A Partnership Between the University of Kentucky Undergraduate and Medical Schools with Rural High Schools and Hospitals. Paper presented at the Journal of College Admission.

Ellsbury, K., Doescher, M., & Hart, L. (2000). US Medical Schools and the Rural Family Physician Gender Gap. Family Medicine, 32(5), 331.

Elrod, G. F., & And, O. (1994). Rural School-Community Partnerships: "We Take Care of Our Own ". Paper presented at the Theme issue topic: "Transition in Rural America.". Advantages of school-community partnerships in developing rural transitional programs for disabled students include informal community politics that provide opportunities for educational support, accessibility of nonschool personnel, acquaintanceship of parents, strong rural work ethic, and easy identification of community resources. Provides examples of successful rural school-community partnerships delivering postsecondary transition tra