Farmer Education (2001)

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Abdulkadri, A. O., & Ajibefun, I. A. (April 1998). Developing Alternative Farm Plans for Cropping System Decision Making. Agricultural Systems, 56(4), 431-442(412). Declining trend of domestic food production has led to the establishment of a national agricultural programme under the National Directorate of Employment (NDE) in Nigeria. The programme is envisaged to result in increased food production by engaging educated persons in food crop farming. The programme participants, due to their level of education, are also expected to be more efficient in their use of farm resources. In this study, we have generated optimal farm plans for NDE farmers in three different locations in Ondo state, Nigeria, assessed the resource-use efficiency of the sampled farmers, and provided alternative farm plans that are nearly-optimal, and more likely to be acceptable to the farmers when considerations for risk and uncertainty are introduced, using an approach known as Modelling to Generate Alternatives (MGA). Results of our analyses suggested sole cropping as the optimal cropping system for the three locations and non-attainment of optimal gross margins ranged from 24 to 37% among the locations. Although the optimal plans suggested sole cropping, the alternative farm plans provided for mixed cropping when the resulting gross margins were allowed to decrease by as little as 1% from the optimal values. These alternative plans represent various levels of enterprise diversification depending on a particular farmer's risk attitude.

Abu Hassan, M. (Aug 1994). Media Selection for Agricultural Knowledge Transfer: The Malaysian Experience., 25pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (77th, Atlanta, GA, August 10-13, 1994). A study examined the ways in which the staffs of communication units in agricultural extension agencies in Malaysia select media to transfer knowledge to their clients. A survey method of data collection was employed, whereby 95 staff of communication units from 11 development agencies were asked to respond to self- administered questionnaires. Mostly closed-ended questions and ratings of items for frequency and applicability on a scale of 1 to 7 were employed. Results indicated that: (1) respondents regarded actual objects as best in knowledge transfer activities, followed by media that conveyed reality with a high degree of fidelity; (2) the media for instruction were considered somewhat different from media for campaigns; and (3) audience characteristics, purpose of communication, audience media preference, and time given to complete the media were the selection elements (in descending order) considered important in the media selection process. (Contains 22 references and three tables of data.) (Author/RS) ED375443

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Chen, J., & Zhong, Y. (September 1999). Mass political interest (or apathy) in urban China. Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 32(3), 281-303(223). Based on our reassessment of existing studies on political interest and apathy in various societies, we argue the urgent need for a more systematic and focused examination of mass political interest-as psychological involvement in politics-in China. Utilizing data collected from a public opinion survey conducted in Beijing, China in late 1995, we intend to shed some light on the level and sources of political interest in contemporary China. Contrary to the prevalent argument that most Chinese are politically apathetic, we have found that there was a rather high level of political interest within our sample. We have also found that both conventional variables (i.e. age, gender, education, income, political efficacy, and dissatisfaction with government performance) and variables unique to the Chinese setting (i.e. being a farmer, becoming a private entrepreneur, joining the Chinese Communist Party and holding leading position in the party/government) have significant effects on the levels of political interest.

Comer, S., Ekanem, E., & Tegegne, F. (1999). Sustainable and Conventional Farmers: A Comparison of Socio-Economic Characteristics, Attitude, and Beliefs. Journal of sustainable agriculture, 15(1), 29.

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Gasson, R. (October 1998). Educational Qualifications of UK Farmers: A Review. Journal of Rural Studies, 14(4), 487-498(412). Better-educated farmers are known to make greater use of information, advice and training, to participate more in government schemes and to be more proactive in adjusting to change and planning for the future of the business. Such traits are in greater demand as the pace of change accelerates. Yet there is no single authoritative source of information on the educational attainment levels of UK farmers and no benchmark against which to monitor trends. This literature review attempts to integrate evidence from all available sources. The consensus emerging from a number of recent studies seems to be that at least one-third and possibly half of all UK farmers today have pursued courses of further or higher education and obtained qualifications, largely in agriculture or related subjects. About 4-6% have degrees, a similar number have HNDs and between a quarter and a third have FE qualifications from full-time or part-time study. The proportion qualified has risen steeply since the Second World War but still compares unfavourably with managers of other small businesses. Higher levels of educational attainment are associated with large farms and the arable east, with employers, female or pluriactive farmers and with farm managers. Although these relationships tend to be dismissed as 'age effects' or 'size effects', it is suggested that education may be exerting an independent influence on farmer behaviour.

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Kilpatrick, S. (Nov 1996). Change, Training and Farm Profitability. A National Farmers Federation Discussion Paper. Paper presented at the 93p. A project collected empirical data on the effectiveness of training in agriculture in Australia. Emphasis was on types of training and delivery modes most effective in enabling profitable changes to farm management or agricultural practice and on other catalysts that result in farmers making changes to increase profitability. Data were obtained from additional questions included in the Australian Bureau of Statistics/1993-94 Agricultural Financial Survey and an interview survey of 65 Tasmanian farmers. Findings indicated the following: specific adult agricultural education was related to higher profit; formal education improved profitability or productivity; and recent participation in training was clearly associated with higher profit. Farm businesses that trained and made changes to practice were more profitable than other farm businesses. Farm businesses that made changes to practice were more likely to participate in training. Small businesses were less likely to make changes in farming practices. Over a 3-year period, 38 percent of farm businesses made no changes to their practice. Larger and more profitable farms were more likely to participate in training events. Inability to get away, distance, or busy time of the year were barriers to training. Intimates, peers, and experts were sources of support. Most farm businesses that intended to train planned training in agricultural practices, although training needs identified by key stakeholders were in the areas of management, marketing, and communication skills. (Contains 43 references.) (YLB) ED407503

Kilpatrick, S. P. L. (2000). Education and Training: Impacts on Farm Management Practice. CRLRA Discussion Paper. A study examined the relationship between education and training and changes to farm management practices that improve profitability. Data were drawn from a National Australian survey of 2,500 farms and from an interview survey of 65 Tasmanian farms, 45 of which had participated in recent training. Findings indicate that farms that participated in training were more likely to make changes that improved profitability. Education and training impacted the farm business via managers' greater awareness of possible innovations, via improved decision making and allocation of resources, and via attitudes that encourage change. Most changes to practice were influenced by interaction with, and information from, multiple sources, including peers, experts, and training events. Family, staff, and other farmers were relatively more important in prompting change for farm managers with no postsecondary educational qualifications. Expert advisers, other farmers, and training events were major sources of awareness of subsequently implemented strategies and practices, as well as major sources of influence on the decision to change. Interaction with peers, family, and friends facilitated changes in values, attitudes, and beliefs, and may be necessary before change can occur. Education and training influences promoted change by delivering new knowledge and skills and by providing opportunities for interaction with experts and peers. Education and training programs designed to encourage interaction and sharing of knowledge and skills were most likely to facilitate changes in farm businesses, especially to complex practices such as financial and land management. (Contains 41 references.) (TD) ED445852

Kilpatrick, S., & Bell, R. P. L. (2000). Support Networks and Trust: How Social Capital Facilitates Learning Outcomes for Small Businesses. Executive Link is a group of farm businesses that meet for regular nonformal education and training in several chapters in eastern Australia. Each chapter consists of a number of boards, each made up of around six member farm businesses. The boards provide management advice to their members, who are free to accept or reject that advice. A study of the group revealed generally applicable prerequisites for developing a support capacity: 1) high level of individual members' personal self-confidence and high level of interpersonal communication skills; 2) getting to know each other as individuals, developing shared values and trust; 3) coming to regard each other as credible sources of support and advice; and 4) commitment to the board and fellow members. As they learn together, members generate horizontal social capital that is used as members make changes to their businesses. Executive Link is an example of a learning community that achieves positive economic outcomes because it is adaptable and willing to change. Member businesses are more resilient because the group acts as a support network that assists businesses as they make changes to take advantage of opportunities and minimize threats. Change processes draw on the social capital of the learning communitymembers are committed to the group, and there is a norm of reciprocity that leads to spontaneous actions for the benefit of others. (TD) ED445853

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Llewelyn, R. V., & Williams, J. R. (November 1996). Nonparametric analysis of technical, pure technical, and scale efficiencies for food crop production in East Java, Indonesia. Agricultural Economics, 15(2), 113-126(114). Nonparametric analysis of technical efficiency for irrigated farms in the Madiun regency in the west-central part of East Java, Indonesia is conducted using linear programming techniques. This procedure allows the relative technical efficiency for each farm to be determined and for inefficiencies to be decomposed into pure technical inefficiency and scale inefficiency and does not require restrictions or assumptions regarding functional form to be placed on the data.Farmers in Madiun generally are efficient relative to each other. Farmers operating inefficiently do so more often because of scale inefficiencies rather than pure technical inefficiencies. A majority of the farms operate in the region of decreasing returns to scale rather than increasing returns to scale. Farmer age, the level of diversification of cropping activities, and high school education were found to be related to technical efficiency in the rainy season under irrigated conditions. Other socioeconomic factors were not statistically significant.The results imply that inefficient farms use excessive levels of inputs, particularly nitrogen fertilizer. This is perhaps due to the lingering effects of past input subsidization policies, particularly of fertilizers, in Indonesia, or to risk-reducing behavior. The results also imply that current government policies to encourage diversification of cropping practices in Java may lead to greater technical inefficiencies in production. In addition, extension education targeted to younger farmers with low levels of formal education would improve efficiency.

Lohr, L., Park, T., & Higley, L. (July 1999). Farmer risk assessment for voluntary insecticide reduction. Ecological Economics, 30(1), 121-130(110). We develop a theoretical basis for voluntary reduction in insecticide use, and quantify the subjective value farmers place on reducing environmental risk. The indirect utility model is used to quantify the acceptable financial cost of eliminating one insecticide application in return for avoidance of moderate risk to the environment. The mean valuation in Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska and Ohio, USA, is $8.25 per acre. Acceptable yield loss increases with importance of environmental goods, with formal education and with farming experience. Valuation increases with total expenditure on insecticides up to $89 per acre. Decomposition of the Tobit model used in estimation indicates that voluntary programs should target intensification rather than extensification of participation to maximize effectiveness.

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O'Sullivan, J. M. (2000). Small and Part-Time Farmers in the Southern Region. Paper presented at the Also sponsored by the TVA Rural Studies Program at the University of Kentucky, and 29 Southern land grant institutions. Page Length: 12. The loss of small farms in the South was dramatic from 1987 to 1997, with family farming becoming an increasingly rare phenomenon. Small farms are important to the local economic base. They purchase inputs locally, keep the tax base low, and reduce the need for public services. Diversity among farm managers is increasing in the South, with greater numbers of Hispanic and women farm operators. At the same time, only small increases are occurring in the number of African American farmers. Sustainable agriculture advocates have an interest in maintaining niches for small farms and in bringing young people into farming. They point out that well educated small-farm operators are more environmentally responsible. Policy issues include: a need to level the playing field for small farms by developing broad-based national agriculture policy, land use concerns, environmental protection and regulation enforcement, and alternative sources of capital and local financial markets. The major issues facing the small farm are economiccash flow, income, asset development and protection, and return on investment. These issues must be addressed by federal, state, and local policy. Land grant universities need to commit research and educational resources to address the South's small farms issues. (Contains 14 references.) (TD) ED442598

Ohrn, D. G., Ed. (1994). Iowa State Fair. Paper presented at the 33pp. For related items, see ED 349 215, ED 348 273, ED 346 014, and ED 344 809. This issue of the "Goldfinch" focuses on the Iowa state fair. The magazine begins with a map of the fair as it looks today. The article explains that the first Iowa state fair was held in 1854. After traveling from town to town for several years, the fair settled in the capital city of Des Moines in 1878. Eight years later, in 1886, the first fair was held on the fairgrounds that are now its permanent home. An article on 4-H clubs and programs describes 4-H projects that have won awards at the fair. A section on state fair news discusses fair food, the first Iowa state fair female equestrians, butter sculptress, and other fair entertainments. Another article details the history of the state fair, and explains how the fair has changed since it first began. Learning activities include instructions for making a butter sculpture, an exercise in which students identify buildings at the fairgrounds by matching the name of each building with its drawing using the clues provided, a fill in the blanks activity on a fair theme, a funnel cake maze, and a cartoon. Other articles describe the history of the Youth Inn at the fairgrounds and how camping at the fair has changed. An excerpt from a the book "State Fair' by an Iowa author is included. Information on a state fair writing contest for fifth graders is detailed as well as instructions for doing an oral history. (DK) ED370864

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Pender, J. L., & Kerr, J. M. (1 September 1998). Determinants of farmers' indigenous soil and water conservation investments in semi-arid India. Agricultural Economics, 19(1), 113-125(113). This paper investigates the determinants of farmers' indigenous soil and water conservation investments in the semi-arid tropics of India. A simple theoretical model is used to develop hypotheses about the determinants of investment under alternative factor market conditions, and these are tested using data on conservation investment from three villages. We find that conservation investment is significantly lower on leased land in two of the study villages and lower on plots that are subject to sales restrictions in one village, suggesting the potential for land market reforms to increase conservation investment. In one village, households with more adult males, more farm servants, and less land invest more in conservation, as predicted by the model of imperfect labor markets; and households with more debt and off-farm income invest more, consistent with the model of imperfect credit markets. Evidence that conservation investment is affected by factor market imperfections is weaker in the other villages, where investments are much larger, suggesting transaction costs as the source of the differences between villages. Other factors that have a significant effect on investment include the farmer's education and caste, characteristics of the plot (size, slope, irrigation status, and quality ranking) and the presence of existing land investments. The results suggest the importance of accounting for differences across communities and households in factor market and agroclimatic conditions in designing programs to promote investments in soil and water conservation.

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Schenker, M. B. (1997). Preventive medicine and health promotion are overdue in the agricultural workplace. Occupational Health and Industrial Medicine, 36(1), 8-8(1). Agriculture was one of the earliest industries in which occupational hazards were recognized, but it has been largely excluded from the mainstream of modern preventive medicine and occupational health efforts. This resulted from the heavy industry focus of occupational medicine, from the agrarian myth which stated that work in agriculture was a healthy employment, from the widely dispersed, often family-centered, nature of farming, and from neglect of migrant and seasonal farmworker populations. Since the middle of this century it has been recognized that agriculture is one of the most hazardous major industries, but whereas the injury and fatality rates in other hazardous industries (e.g. mining, construction) have fallen substantially, there has been no comparable decline in agriculture. In addition to occupational injuries and fatalities, there is a wide range of chronic diseases that result from agricultural exposures. These include musculoskeletal, respiratory, dermatologic and reproductive disorders. Hearing loss is increased among farmers, several cancers have been associated with farming or agricultural exposures, and increased suicides have been observed in some farming populations. Recommendations for disease prevention and health promotion must be sensitive to the unique nature of farming, including the demographically different farmer, farm family, and hired farmworker populations. Approaches discussed in the paper include engineering changes, education with evaluation of its effectiveness, and enforcement of appropriate laws.

Sikhondze, W. (1999). The Role of Extension in Farmer Education and Information Dissemination in Swaziland. Paper presented at the Adult education and development.

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Wallace, I. (January 1997). Agricultural education at the crossroads: present dilemmas and possible options for the future in sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Educational Development, 17(1), 27-39(13). Agricultural Education and Training (AET) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) needs to respond to the many changes in the socio-economic and political environments within which it exists. In addition to these, there are marked changes in the concept of 'agriculture' itself, which is increasingly seen in terms of broader notions of renewable natural resource management, with increasing emphasis on integrated systems and sustainable production.Traditional forms of AET are also challenged by new ideas about the process of teaching and learning, including soft-systems thinking, participatory rural appraisal and farmer-to-farmer extension; as well as the emergence of new modes of learning (including distance learning). Current moves towards privatisation also mean that there is increasing prominence given to new and more flexible providers such as NGOs, parastatal bodies and agribusinesses. All these factors are leading to calls for adaptation, innovation and diversification in systems which have been marked by their lack of responsiveness in the past.Dilemmas which now face the AET sector include changing patterns of donor support, the emergence of new training needs and new types of audiences. The paper examines a range of issues, including the lack of labour market and training needs identification studies, the need for more relevant and responsive curricula, the key role of staff development in creating 'learning organisations', the need for a strategy of developing linkages and learning webs or networks and for far more sustainable donor interventions. Finally there is a lack of a coherent policy framework for AET in most countries in the region.A number of options are discussed, such as rationalisation, including achieving a better balance between public and private sector provision, the adoption of new aims and learning styles at all levels, catering for the needs of new target audiences and enhancing innovation and relevance in curriculum.Some important prerequisites for such changes are highlighted and include political will and commitment, consensus and popular support, entrepreneurial leadership, a balance between responsiveness and stability and the targeting of financial and other forms of support to enable sustainable models of innovation to emerge.

Wilson, G. A. (1997). Factors Influencing Farmer Participation in the Environmentally Sensitive Areas Scheme. Journal of Environmental Management, 50(1), 67-93(27). This study investigates factors influencing farmers' motivations for participation in the Cambrian Mountains ESA scheme (Wales, U.K.). Emphasis is placed on analysing whether significant correlations exist between ESA participation and specific factors. A behavioural approach is used for analysis, largely based on Brotherton's classification into "scheme factors" (e.g. payments) and "farmer factors" (e.g. age of farmer), but which expands this classification by including the "information environment" of a farmer and "dynamics within the farm district"-variables which this study shares with some actor-network approaches. While size and existence of remnant wildlife habitats were strongly correlated with overall participation, payments offered by the scheme, information provided by ADAS, scheme flexibility, the "successors factor" and dynamics within the district were of particular importance for participation on farms of marginal ESA eligibility (i.e. small farms lacking substantial semi-natural habitats). Age, education and length of residency were important for explaining differential entering of specific habitats (especially broadleaved woodlands) into the ESA scheme, while scheme duration, dependence on the farm for income, tenure and the general information environment of the farmer did not influence overall participation. The paper concludes by arguing that a behavioural approach offers a valuable insight into farmers' decision-making behaviour with regard to participation in agri-environmental schemes, and that this study may be seen as a starting point that could be expanded through the use of related methodologies.

Wilson, G. A. (May 1996). Farmer Environmental Attitudes and ESA Participation. Geoforum, 27(2), 115-131(117). This study analyses the importance of farmers' environmental attitudes for (non)-participation in the Cambrian Mountains ESA scheme. It highlights that age, education, length of residency, farming philosophy and the existence of remnant semi-natural habitats on farms are important variables explaining farmers' dispositions toward conservation and participation behaviour in the ESA scheme. An expansion of Morris and Potter's (1995) concept of a 'participation spectrum' is suggested that also considers the position of a farm on a spectrum of ESA eligibility. It is argued that farmers' environmental attitudes are most relevant on farms of marginal ESA eligibility where conservation-oriented attitudes may tip the balance toward participation. In order to increase participation, it is suggested that policy makers and those administering the Cambrian Mountains ESA scheme specifically target this group of non-participants.

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