Intentional Learning (1998)

Page Contents

A      B      C      D      E      F      G      H      I      J      K      L      M      N      O      P      R      S      T      V      W

A

Ackerman, B. P. (1985). The Effects of Specific and Categorical Orienting on Children's Incidental and Intentional Memory for Pictures and Words. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology v39 n2 p300-25 Apr 1985. Second-graders, fifth-graders, and adults participated in an experiment of cued recall for cue-target picture and word pairs. Results suggested that differences in the encoding of both specific and categorical attribute information contribute to developmental recall differences independently of encoding intent and stimulus modality. (Author/CB) UMI EJ315766

Anderson, T. H. (1978). Study Skills and Learning Strategies. Technical Report No. 104. Illinois Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. Contract no.: 400-76-0116; N00123-77-C-0622. The process of studying text material is a criteria-related, self-directed form of reading involving three phases: prereading, reading, and postreading. Prereading consists of clarifying the criteria for study, constructing a study guide, and surveying the text to determine how much is already known, how interesting it is, and how difficult or time consuming it will be to learn what needs to be known. The reading phase includes extended reading, monitoring understanding of text meaning, and remediating important comprehension failures as they occur. Postreading activities augment what has already been learned and generate useful alternative texts, such as notes and outlines. Mapping can be part of this final stage and involves an elaborate outlining system which juxtaposes related ideas and indicates the nature of their relationship by a symbol system. (TJ) ED161000

Archer, B. U., & Margolin, R. R. R. (1970). Arousal Effects in Intentional Recall and Forgetting. Journal of Experimental Psychology 86 1 8-12. EJ028600

Article, J., EJ120148, F., & Hollingsworth, B. (1975). Effects of Performance Goals and Anxiety on Learning a Gross Motor Task, Research Quarterly 46 2 162-8. In this study, the performer's anxiety state tended to decrease, as performance level increased during a motor task. (JS)

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Burack, J. A., & Zigler, E. (1990). Intentional and Incidental Memory in Organically Mentally Retarded, Familial Retarded, and Nonretarded Individuals. American Journal on Mental Retardation v94 n5 p532-40 Mar 1990. When 40 organically mentally retarded, 33 familial retarded, and 35 nonretarded school-age children were compared on 2 tasks of intentional memory, with mental age being covaried, the nonretarded children performed best, followed by the familial group. The 3 groups did not differ on a task of incidental learning. (Author/JDD) UMI EJ408514

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Child Development 41 1151-1158. EJ035375

Clabby, J., & F., J. (1979). Humor as a Preferred Activity of the Creative and Humor as a Facilitator of Learning. Psychology: A Quarterly Journal of Human Behavior v16 n1 p5-12 Spr 1979. The humor element as a reinforcing tool was examined. Experimental group subjects selecting nouns were shown humorous cartoons. Non-noun selection was followed by a humorless cartoon. Results indicated that humor significantly facilitated intentional learning for the low-creative experimental group. (Author/BEF) EJ210486

COHEN, D. B. (1967). A STUDY OF THE EFFICIENCY OF LEARNING WHEN BOTH INCIDENTAL AND INTENTIONAL LEARNING OCCUR SIMULTANEOUSLY. FINAL REPORT. THE EFFECT OF INCIDENTAL VISUAL STIMULI ON THE EFFICIENCY OF LEARNING FACTUAL MATERIAL BY FRESHMAN COLLEGE STUDENTS WAS INVESTIGATED. THE INVESTIGATORS DETERMINED WHETHER THE PROVISION OF INCIDENTAL STIMULI, WHEN USED TO FACILITATE LEARNING, RESULTED IN IMPROVED TEST PERFORMANCE. BRIEF, HIGH INTENSITY STIMULI, SEX DIFFERENCE, COLOR OF FOCAL MATERIAL AND CUE WORDS, AND CONTROL OF THE PRESENTATION OF FOCAL MATERIAL AND INCIDENTAL STIMULI BY A GROUP TEACHING DEVICE WERE THE CRITERION VARIABLES. THE LEARNING SITUATIONS INVOLVED THE VISUAL PRESENTATION (USING TWO PROJECTORS) OF 32 SLIDES SHOWING 32 UNRELATED "BITS" OF FACTUAL INFORMATION, AND 32 PAIRED CUE SLIDES TO HIGHLY MOTIVATE THE SUBJECTS. THE RESULTS EMPHASIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION IN CONNECTION WITH INCIDENTAL LEARNING. THE FINDING THAT MOTIVATED COLLEGE STUDENTS CAN IMPROVE TEST PERFORMANCE THROUGH THE USE OF INCIDENTAL STIMULI IMPLIES THAT IT IS POSSIBLE TO IMPROVE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE LEARNING OF FACTUAL MATERIAL IN THE CLASSROOM BY CAUSING BOTH INCIDENTAL AND INTENTIONAL LEARNING TO OCCUR SIMULTANEOUSLY. THE TEACHING METHOD EMPLOYED IN THIS STUDY MAY BE SUITABLE FOR REMEDIAL TEACHING IN THE AREAS DEALING PRIMARILY WITH FACTUAL MATERIAL. (AUTHOR/IM) Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Report/ISSN: BR-6-8670 Grant No.: OEG-2-7-008670-2061 ED019701

Cohen, D. B. (1970). Efficiency of Learning When Both Incidental and Intentional Learning Occur Simultaneously. Perceptual and Motor Skills 31 2 367-70. EJ028649

Conte, R., & Andrews, J. (1993). Social Skills in the Context of Learning Disability Definitions: A Reply to Gresham and Elliott and Directions for the Future. Journal of Learning Disabilities v26 n3 p146-53 Mar 1993. In response to Gresham and Elliott (1989), who concluded that a social skills deficit should not constitute a learning disability, this paper claims that current definitions allow for including social skills deficits. They propose limiting the definition of learning disabilities to intentional learning contexts, thus excluding social skills deficits. (Author/DB) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0022-2194 EJ463954

Cruse, D., & Jones, R. R. A. (1976). Intentional Forgetting of Tones in a Choice Recognition-Time Task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 2 577-85. Attempts to determine whether intentional forgetting instructions influence memory when the opportunity for rehearsal is restricted and whether the intentional forgetting phenomenon could be accounted for by a selective-search hypothesis which states that memory improvement is due to a smaller search set in the cued condition relative to the control. (Author/RK) EJ153017

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d'Ydewalle, G., & Eelen, P. (1975). Repetition and Recall of "Right" and "Wrong" Responses in Incidental and Intentional Learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology (Human Learning and Memory) 104 429-41. To show how a subject's memory of previous responses and their outcomes affects responding, as in Buchwald's cognitive model, the subject in the present study had to recall his previous response and its outcome before choosing the correct response. (Editor/RK) EJ123686

Davis, M. (1973). The Physiological Correlates of Learning. The author reviews the literature and makes tentative conclusions concerning the physiological correlates of learning and memory. Particular attention is given to the issues of spinal cord learning, subcortical learning, cerebral cortex learning, localization of learning within the brain (specificity vs. non-specificity), and association areas (specific areas where learning is possibly controlled). Physiological changes within the brain resulting from learning are also explored. (RWP) Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. ED089163

Davis, M., & Hult, R. R. E. (1997). Effects of Writing Summaries as a Generative Learning Activity during Note Taking. Teaching of Psychology v24 n1 p47-49 1997. Investigates the efficiency of a novel addition to the routine of note taking, writing brief summaries of the lecture material during four-minute breaks within the lecture. A group of students wrote three sets of summaries during a 21-minute lecture and showed significant improvement in understanding over other groups. (MJP) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0098-6283 EJ548221

Dean, R. S., & Kulhavy, R. R. W. (1981). Influence of Spatial Organization in Prose Learning. Journal of Educational Psychology v73 n1 p57-64 Feb 1981. In two experiments, undergraduates did/did not create a maplike representation while learning a passage, and were either forced to study the map, instructed to study, or given no map prior to reading. Free-recall data showed that forced map study benefited learners with low vocabulary scores. (Author/GK) Reprint: UMI EJ244926

Deichmann, J. W., Others, A., & Ross, D. (1971

DeNitto, J. F., & Ellenburg, F. F. C. (1983). The Antecedent Condition: Cause of Classroom Learning. Contemporary Education v55 n1 p33-34 Fall 1983. A cause-and-effect relationship exists between the event called teaching and the event called learning. Teachers should create antecedent conditions for learning by motivating students and by using strategies such as explaining, comparing, and reinforcing. (PP) UMI EJ288962

Dickinson, J. (1978). Retention of Intentional and Incidental Motor Learning. Research Quarterly v49 n4 p437-41 Dec 1978. The results suggest that coding for storage in the short-term memory is effective when learning occurs under incidental conditions; however, long-term storage appears to be significantly affected by the intention to learn and the foreknowledge of a recall test. (MM) Reprint: UMI EJ202405

Dinnel, D., & Glover, J. J. A. (1986). Memory for Prose: Relational and Lexical Item-Specific Processing for Intentional Recall. Journal of Reading Behavior v18 n4 p297-308 1986. Contrasts sequential and relational processing manipulations of passages with manipulations which focus on individual lexical items and the propositions in which they are embedded. Finds recall to be superior when readers use sequential and relational processing during performance of individual item-specific lexical processing. (RS) UMI EJ393402

Dixon, P. N. (1978). Locus of Control and Intentional Versus Incidental Learning. Journal of Experimental Education 46 2 12-6. The locus of control of subjects may be the confounding variable affecting the acceptance of motivational cues in intentional-incidental (INT-INC) learning studies, and thus the reason for conflicting results in "funneling effect" (leaning toward intentional learning as a function of motivation) experiments. 96 female college students selected for locus of control were studied for performance difference on INT and INC learning under high and low motivation. (Editor/RK) Reprint Available (See p. vii): UMI EJ178750

Duchastel, P. C., & Brown, B. B. R. (1974). Incidental and Relevant Learning with Instructional Objectives. Journal of Educational Psychology 66 481-5. College students received either one half of the objectives for a certain test or no objectives at all. The subjects with objectives performed better than those without on posttest items referenced to their objectives (relevant learning) and less well on items not covered (incidental learning). Findings conflict with previous research. (Author/SE) EJ108372

Dunlap, J. C. (1997). Preparing Students for Lifelong Learning: A Review of Instructional Methodologies. Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Presentations at the 1997 National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (19th, Albuquerque, NM, February 14-18, 1997); see IR 018 421. New Mexico Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. In a climate of rapid change, increasing innovation, and proliferating knowledge, lifelong learning is an important educational objective. Lifelong learning skills need to be developed if educators intend for their students to stay current in their fields. Staying abreast of new innovations, research, techniques, and information is a prerequisite for successful decision-making and problem-solving on the job. This paper provides an overview of instructional methodologies: problem-based learning, intentional learning, reciprocal teaching, and cognitive apprenticeship that prepare students for lifelong learning. Using collaboration, reflection, student autonomy, and intrinsically-motivating activities, these instructional methodologies help students develop the metacognitive and self-directed learning skills needed to remain competitive in an ever changing professional climate. (Contains 46 references.) (SWC) ED409835

Dunlop, F. (1977). Human Nature, Learning and Ideology. British Journal of Educational Studies 25 3 239-57. Analyzes the process of learningboth intentional and non-intentionaland concludes that the view that learning is learning only if it is formal and intentional is false. (RK) EJ172879

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Eagle, M. N., & Mulliken, S. (1974). The Role of Affective Ratings in Intentional and Incidental Learning. American Journal of Psychology 87 3 409-23. Article considered whether one should be able to obtain - by selecting the appropriate orienting task - incidental learning that is superior to ordinary intentional learning. (Author/RK) EJ115341

EJ033783

Ellis, N. R., & Others, A. (1989). Automatic-Effortful Processing and Cognitive Inertia in Persons with Mental Retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation v93 n4 p412-23 Jan 1989. The study utilized the Stroop Color-Word Interference Test to assess automatic-effortful processing in 47 mentally retarded subjects and 29 college students. The study found failure of control (effortful) processing needed to suppress automatic responses and greater persistence of no longer adaptive automatized responses in the retarded subjects. (Author/DB) EJ388860

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Fidler, J. R., & Others, A. (1985). Memory for Frequency of Hearing Popular Music. Illinois Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. This experiment was designed to better understand the effects of individual differences, intent to learn, and stimulus familiarity on frequency judgment accuracy. Half of the participants in the study heard popular songs, and the other half listened to unfamiliar songs. Participants were subdivided into three more groups, introducing the "intent to learn variable". They were (1) aware of an upcoming frequency test, (2) aware of an upcoming memory test, or (3) given a distractor task of completing a math test. A series of taped 10-second song excerpts, separated by 5-second silent intervals, were played to participants. Sixteen songs were repeated at varying frequencies throughout the tape. Participants were asked to judge how many times they had heard each song. Analyses of variance were performed on mean frequency of each group. Persons judging unfamiliar music tended to inflate their frequency estimates compared to persons judging familar music. Frequency judgment ability seemed to be impaired for persons in the distractor condition. High music-knowledge persons exhibited superior frequency judgment accuracy. (LMO) ED263188

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Gagne, R. M. (1986). Instructional Technology: The Research Field. Journal of Instructional Development v8 n3 p7-14 1986. Reflects upon opportunities for research in instructional technology provided by present state of media hardware technology and educational requirements. Prospects for research in incidental learning, including learning from television, are discussed, as well as traditional learning research on intentional learning, including possibilities for schema based research on learning from text. (MBR) UMI EJ331807

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Hamada-Adler, R., & White, M. M. A. (1982). Differences Between Children and Adults in Learning BASIC on Microcomputers. New York Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Do children and adults who are novices in their use of microcomputers differ in their approaches when learning a computer language? Ten fourth- and fifth-grade students and 10 graduate students were observed learning the language BASIC on microcomputers. All sessions were tape recorded and verbalizations subsequently coded. Verbalizations, the number of computer operations executed, and the percentage of responses which were correct were compared for the two groups. The pattern of verbalizations was strikingly similar for children and adults. Monitoring and checking statements accounted for almost half of total verbal output, and questions to the examiner accounted for one quarter. Adults, more often than children, expressed negative comments about the computer. Although computer output for adults was greater than for children, there was no significant difference in the percentage of correct responses for the two groups. Possible explanations for these performance similarities and for the potential of the computer as an equalizer between young and old are discussed. (Author) ED225643

Hauck, W. E., & Thomas, J. J. W. (1972). The Relationship of Humor to Intelligence, Creativity, and Intentional and Incidental Learning. Journal of Experimental Education 40 52-5. Findings suggest that humor facilitates the recall of incidental but not intentional learning. (MB) EJ060759

Hayes, D. A., & Alvermann, D. D. E. (1984). A Cyclical Plan for Using Study Strategies. Forum for Reading v15 n2 p47-52 Spr-Sum 1984 Georgia Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. A cyclical plan for studying that takes into account information processing strategies and their effective management by students consists of (1) specifying study purposes, (2) previewing the materials, (3) proceeding through the task incrementally, and (4) connecting the content to be learned to other knowledge about the material studied. Setting effective study goals requires that the student know the reasons for undertaking a particular study task and set objectives to be reached when it is completed. In previewing, the student skims the text and actively searches for clues to accomplish the goal of the study activity. On the basis of the preview, the student can mentally segment the text into components smaller than the sections marked by headings or subheadings, and then deal with the text in parts small enough to recite content relevant to the study task. As the student proceeds through the text, interim review of text segments studied helps pull the material together and fosters a growing sense of the significance of the content. The purpose of global review is to bring closure to the study of a text in a way that will render it memorable and useful for further study. The final consideration in the cyclical framework is preparing for a unit test, at which point students augment their notes with information gained from supplementary materials. (HOD) ED251794

Haygood, E. L., & Iran-Nejad, A. (1993). Analysis of Learning Conceptions Based on Three Modules. Alabama Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Three learning modules are described and investigated as they reflect different students' conceptions of and approaches to learning. The Schoolwork Module (SWM) focuses on task performance and involves a passive, incremental, piecemeal, and rote memory method of learning, parallel to what might be implied by the Information Processing model of memory. The Intentional Learning Module (ILM) is based on the tacit conception of learning as constructive internalization of external knowledge. The learner views the body of external information as privileged expert knowledge to be internalized. The Interest Creating Discovery Module (ICDM) is based on the conception of learning as the reorganization of one's own internal knowledge. An inventory was designed to measure the conceptions of learning corresponding to these modules, and it was administered to 194 undergraduate students. Factor analysis was used. It is apparent that all three approaches are used by college students. Only 8 of the 84 items show significant use of SWM, while 7 show use of ILM, and 15 show significant use of ICDM. ICDM may reflect an incorporation of learning conceptions from SWM and ILM, or ICDM users have reinterpreted the questions within their own approach. Two tables present study data. (Contains 19 references.) (SLD) ED366630

Hellgren, P. (1985). Teaching: A Social Concept. Research Report 36. Finland Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC04 Plus Postage. Department of Teacher Education, University of Helsinki, Ratakatu 2, 00120 Helsinki, Finland. Report/ISSN: ISBN-951-45-3820-X. The purpose of this study was to investigate teaching within the framework of the philosophical social action theory developed by Professor Tuomela in order to argue for the claim that teaching is a social concept. The outcome is likely to have important implications for the development of theories about factual and conceptual phenomena within pedagogy. The joint action of teaching performed by the teacher and pupil was analyzed in the purposive-causal theory. The most important means of analysis was the action language and the concepts connected with it: intentionality and we-intentions. The particular theses argued for were: (1) the concept of teaching requires the concept of learning as an action, not as a learning outcome; (2) the concept of we-intention is needed to account for the joint action of the teacher and the pupil. Part of the analysis involved going through the conceptions of teaching in the educational literature and clarifying misconceptions. In particular, teaching was viewed in terms of the collective acting jointly and in terms of modes of teaching. In institutionalized teaching, the jointness of the teaching action prevails between the teacher and each pupil separately, that is, the pupils' component actions are not dependent on each other's actions. As for the we-intention, additional conditions can be set for the concept in the case of instruction and indoctrination. (Author) ED281784

Homa, D., & Spieker, S. (1974). Assessment of Selective Search as an Explanation for Intentional Forgetting. Journal of Experimental Psychology 103 10-5. An assessment of selective search as an explanation for intentional forgetting was investigated by measuring reaction time (RT) in paired-associate lists of varying length. (Editor) EJ101873

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Jacobs, H. L. (1988). Focus on Research: Of Birchrods and Percentiles. Contemporary Education v59 n3 p162-164 Spr 1988. The current climate for excellence in education has set off a wave of reactions, especially in the demand for accountability based on the assessment of students' academic performance. The effects on one school district's summer school curriculum, and its implications for teachers, are discussed. (JL) UMI EJ377037

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Kamps, D. M., & Others, A. (1995). Peer-Inclusive Social Skills Groups for Young Children with Behavioral Risks. Preventing School Failure v39 n4 p10-15 Sum 1995. A social intervention for 4- and 5-year olds exhibiting behavior problems is described. The multiyear social skills program includes direct instruction of social skills, incidental teaching, and reinforcement procedures. Training of school staff and program implementation are highlighted. Observable improvements in peer interactions resulted from program implementation. (DB) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-1045-988X EJ511890

Kaplan, R. (1974). Effects of Learning Prose with Part versus Whole Presentations of Instructional Objectives. Journal of Educational Psychology 66 5 787-92. The primary finding of this study was that performance increments found with whole presentations of instructional objectives could be achieved with part presentation of objectives and text. In fact, the part presentations resulted in ever greater intentional learning than whole presentations. (Author/BJG) EJ118482

Kaplan, R. (1976). Effect of Experience and Subjects' Use of Directions upon Learning from Prose. Journal of Educational Psychology 68 717-24. The effects of four objective treatments (none, before text, after text, and combined before and after text) and two types of experience (practical and experimental) were investigated for intentional and incidental learning. (Author/RC) EJ156027

Kaplan, R. (1976). Effects of Grouping and Response Characteristics of Instructional Objectives When Learning from Prose. Journal of Educational Psychology 68 424-30. The effects of requiring an overt or covert response to objectives when grouped before or interspersed throughout a text were investigated for intentional and incidental learning. In addition, two densities of specific and general objectives were investigated. (Author/BW) EJ145640

Kaplan, R., & Rothkopf, E. E. Z. (1972). The Effect of Presenting Objectives Prior to Text. This study examined the effects of four characteristics of instructional objectives presented to the student prior to reading, upon intentional and incidental learning. The most salient result was produced by providing instructional objectives to the student prior to the text. The main findings were that (a) density increases (Proportion of intentional to total sentences) resulted in a reduction of intentional learning but did not affect incidental learning; and (b) specifically stated objectives produced more intentional learning than did general objectives. Incidental learning was influenced by density and specificity of directions. This suggests that presentation of objectives will not interfere with incidental learning. (Author) Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. ED062398

Keedy, J., & Others, A. (1993). Exploring the Student-as-Worker Metaphor: How Do You Get There from Here? North Carolina Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. This paper reports on a study conducted to examine a shift in responsibility for learning to the students in an advanced placement American history class. Specifically, the extent to which students (N=9) were analytic in their thinking and writing and self-directed in their work was investigated. Naturalistic inquiry and comparative analysis were used to identify emerging themes among the data collected through interviews with the students and the teacher, classroom observation, analysis of student papers, and a student questionnaire. A rubric for analysis, including student background, interpretation of the meaning of analytic skills, perspective towards history, and the meaning of self-directed learning, provided a framework for the creation of case studies, four of which are presented in the text. Regarding student analytic skills, more evidence of evaluation and interpretation was found in student writing, and more justifying orally was discovered in student interaction. Use of content seemed to be the least emphasized. All nine students perceived student directed learning (SDL) as doing and completing assignments on their own, not as an intellectual growth process, i.e., using their minds well by developing an internalized, historically grounded perspective. Only one student's work approximated the criteria for SDL; the others had attitudes grounded in their backgrounds, not perspectives grounded in American history. Appendixes provide a class survey for classroom restructuring, rubric for analysis of five remaining students, and an interview excerpt. (Contains 30 references.) (LL) ED367650

Kessler, S. (1974). Treatment of Overweight. Journal of Counseling Psychology 21 5 395-398. Participants were divided into three groups: (a) control group, (b) Treatment 1 involving the application of learning theory plus group therapy, and (c) Treatment 2 involving the same as Treatment 1 plus mutual help principles. Both treatment groups lost significantly more weight over a seven-week period than did the control group. (Author) EJ108763

Keyser, D. F. (1976). Relationship of Placement of Performance Objectives and Reading Comprehension Levels on the Learning of Intentional and Unintentional Material in Written Prose. From a total enrollment of 440 students in business communication classes, 270 voluntarily participated in a study of the relationship between the placement of performance objectives and reading comprehension. Students were tested for reading comprehension and were randomly assigned to one of two experiments and to pre-, post-, or no-objective groups. The two experiments differed in the reading passage used; in both cases, intentional and unintentional learning were tested with an immediate posttest and a four-week retention test. Analysis of the results indicated that performance objectives were more effective with difficult material and that students with medium or high reading comprehension learned better when no performance objectives were involved. However, when performance objectives were made available, postobjectives were more effective than were preobjectives, in increasing both intentional and unintentional learning. (Author/AA) Not available from EDRS. Document Not Available from EDRS. University Microfilms, P.O. Box 1764, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 (Order No. 76-19,169, MF $7.50, Xerography $15.00) ED127589

Klauer, K. J. (1984). Intentional and Incidental Learning with Instructional Texts: A Meta-Analysis for 1970-1980. American Educational Research Journal v21 n2 p323-39 Sum 1984. The main findings of a meta-analysis of 23 research reports were the following: giving behavioral objectives, learning directions, or questions before an instructional text is read leads to some improvement in the learning of goal relevant material; however, these preinstructional acts impede the learning of goal irrelevant materials. (Author/BW) UMI EJ303652

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Lawson, M. J., & Fueloep, S. (1980). Understanding the Purpose of Strategy Training. British Journal of Educational Psychology v50 pt2 p175-80 Jun 1980. Two groups of retarded adults were trained to use a cumulative rehearsal strategy for a serial recall task. Subjects who received instructions emphasizing the intended purpose and potential uses of the trained strategy performed significantly better than subjects invited to participate in "a remembering task." (Author/SJL) EJ229556

Lawson, T. E. (1973). Influence of Instructional Objectives on Learning Technical Subject Matter. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education 10 4 5-14. EJ081549

Lawton, J. T. (1977). The Use of Advance Organizers in the Learning and Retention of Logical Operations and Social Studies Concepts. American Educational Research Journal 14 25-43. The results of this investigation are generally supportive of the hypothesis that the learning of prior presented high-order concepts and rules can result in both a facilitation and acceleration of the learning of meaningfully related subject-matter concepts and logical operations. (Author) Reprint Available (See p. vii): UMI EJ168850

Lee, B. J. (1993). LIMEX: Distance Education in Intentional Learning Communities. Momentum v24 n1 p7-9 Feb-Mar 1993. Describes the instructional approach and philosophy of the Loyola Institute for Ministry Extension (LIMEX) in New Orleans, offering master's degrees and certificates in religious education. Focuses on the use of intentional learning communities of 8 to 17 students working communally and LIMEX's definitions of "good learning" and "good teaching." (BCY) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0026-914X EJ458055

Lewis, M. (1979). Issues in the Study of Imitation. New Jersey Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. This paper addresses several issues concerning the nature of imitative acts and the conditions under which they take place. These issues include: (1) the separation of imitative acts from reinforced behavior; (2) the separation of true imitative acts from reflexive acts; (3) the separation of imitative acts from acts which normally have a high likelihood of occurring and from acts which are related to general arousal; (4) the degree and kind of similarity required of the child's action as compared to the model's action; (5) the nature of temporal parameters controlling deferred imitation; (6) the role and nature of the model in imitative behavior; and (7) the nature of the action to be imitated. In addition, the paper raises issues concerning the development of imitation and the role of subjective imitation (actions which are not imitative but which are perceived by parents as imitative) in facilitating parent-child interaction. (SS) ED171394

Libkuman, T. M. (1982). Word Frequency and the Intentional-Incidental Verbal-Discrimination Learning of Nonretarded and Mentally Retarded Individuals. American Journal of Mental Deficiency v87 n1 p80-85 Jul 1982. Results revealed a significant Intelligence x Frequency interaction, which indicated that the retarded group exhibited an incidential learning deficit but only under the high frequency condition. A possible explanation for this finding was discussed within the context of depth of processing. (Author) EJ267176

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Main, R. (1979). Effect on Intended and Incidental Learning from the Use of Learning Objectives with an Audiovisual Presentation. California Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. This paper reports a controlled field experiment conducted to determine the effects and interaction of five independent variables with an audiovisual slide-tape program: presence of learning objectives, location of learning objectives, type of knowledge, sex of learner, and retention of learning. Participants were university students in a general studies course. Test scores measuring intended and incidental knowledge were the dependent variables. The major finding supported Ausubel's subsumption theory in that use of learning objectives as an advance organizer presented before the slide-tape programs significantly increased intended learning. No significant loss was found for incidental learning; rather, the tendency was for the learning objectives to improve rather than lessen incidental learning. The use of learning objectives before the presentation had no significant effects on the affective variables measured and students liked the program more than when no learning objectives were used. (Author/RAO) ED172794

Martinez, M. (1997). Transformation: A Description of Intentional Learning. Utah Available in microfiche only. EDRS Price - MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. This paper examines an intentional learning theory by identifying the influential factors that foster individual learning differences. A psychological model is included that presents four unique learning orientations, built on a foundation of causal beliefs. This model of intentional learning assimilates the combined influence of conative, cognitive, affective, and social processes on learning performance. Intentional learning is described as a highly achievement motivated, agentive approach that learners use to empower themselves. Intentional learning is seen as based on a conception that embraces the transformative power of learning, and supposes an environment in which learners see intent, ability, and effort as critical determinants of achievement. The intentional learner uses knowledge to transform, elaborate, and give knowledge meaning. The intentional learner is an aggressive and expert learner who sets and achieves short and long-term goals, and whose locus of control is internal. (Contains 19 references.) (JLS) ED408260

Marx, D. J. (1970). Intentional and Incidental Concept Formation as a Function of Conceptual Complexity, Intelligence, and Task Complexity. J Educ Psychol 61 4 pt 1 297-304. EJ024716

Marx, M. H. (1971). Decision Making and Observation Variables in Acquisition, Retention, and Transfer of Learning. Final Report. The main purpose of the research was to make a comparative study of: (1) trial-and-error learning, in which a subject performs and is provided with knowledge of results; and (2) observational learning, in which a subject either observes the performance of another subject or is otherwise provided with equivalent information as to the correctness and incorrectness of responses. In general, the earlier results showing superiority of observation learning were not substantiated. Other results indicated that male college students form new associations more rapidly under performance and less rapidly under observation, and that both sexes tend to repeat errors more often over trials under performance and less often under observation. Also, college students in other experiments learned more effectively on the second of two functions, whether it was performance or observation, indicating the role of a warm-up or learning-to-learn factor. (Author) Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC03 Plus Postage. Grant No.: OEG-6-9-090394-0067(057) Project No.: BR-9-0394 ED050426

McKellar, N. A. (1984). Locus of Cognitive Gains from Tutoring. Illinois Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. An experiment was conducted to determine whether tutoring is a learning activity from which the tutor, as well as the tutee, gains cognitively. Undergraduate students (N=80) participated in the study. Half of the subjects studied selected material to tutor another subject. The other half studied material to prepare for a test that they would take. A selected number of the first group engaged in actual tutoring sessions. Results indicated that, on some types of tasks, the cognitive gains of the tutor are not evident until after the tutoring activity is completed. The mechanisms responsible for cognitive benefits for tutors must be relevant to both the preparation and activity phases of tutoring. A mechanism that may be operative in both phases is organization. Tutors may benefit from mentally organizing the learning material to teach it to someone else. For some tasks, this type of preparation, regardless of whether it is followed by actual tutoring, may be beneficial to the tutor. For tasks more difficult or less familiar to the tutor, the tutoring activity may be necessary before it is beneficial to the tutor. (JD) ED249189

Meinke, D. L., & Others, A. (1982). Word Frequency Effects on Memory and Incidental/Intentional Learning. Ohio Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Four separate experiments were completed using the same stimulus materials but different groups of subjects to determine if orienting tasks created problems of control in incidental/intentional learning studies. Subjects were all Caucasians and heterogeneous in age (from 24 to 64 years), educational experiences, and career choices. Those in the first two experiments were enrolled in a continuing education class at a university, those in the third all worked for the same company, and those in the fourth were graduate students. In each case subjects were given nine words, three high frequency, three medium frequency, and three low frequency, and told to write as many synonyms for each as they could in two minutes. In addition, the intentional subjects were told to try to memorize the stimulus words. Analysis of the number of synonyms generated to the stimulus words on the orienting task and the number of stimulus words recalled revealed that intentional learners recalled significantly more stimulus words than incidental learners in three of the four experiments and that there was no significant difference among incidental and intentional learners on the orienting task in any experiment. The rehearsal time necessary to encode stimulus words by the intentional learners did not disrupt performance on the initial learning task. (JL) ED221827

Melton, R. F. (1978). Resolution of Conflicting Claims Concerning the Effect of Behavioral Objectives on Student Learning. Review of Educational Research 48 291-302. Behavioral objectives should be regarded as one of several tools available to educators. Research should be directed toward determining their advantages and limitations, as well as the conditions under which they can be used more effectively. Conditions vary depending upon student awareness of and interest in stated objectives; clarity, difficulty, and number of objectives; and their frequency and position in instructional materials. (Author/CP) Reprint Available (See p. vii): UMI EJ189547

Menges, R. J., And Others to the subjective norm, t. s. o. t. i. c. b. i. f. t. i. p. A. J., Postage., C. I. A. i. p. c. a. m. E. P.-M. P. P., (8/19/98) 60, K. I. P. I. L. L. M. L. P. T. A. B. O. D. M. I. P. P. S. B. S. T. R. T. B., , Article, J., EJ237648, F., Glover, J. A., & Others, A. (1980

Morse, J. A., & Morse, P. P. K. (1978). Effects of Instructional Objectives on Relevant and Incidental Learning for Experienced and Inexperienced Possessors. Georgia Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. In two identical experiments, undergraduate students were randomly assigned to study course-appropriate prose learning materials under one of four experimental conditions (two levels of experience with objectives by two levels of possession of objectives). Achievement on objectives-relevant test items was significantly higher for possessors regardless of experience. No significant difference due to experience was found for incidental learning scores. This lack of support for previously-reported findings showing decreased incidental learning for experienced possessors of objectives is attributed to differences in the relevance of the learning materials and the nature of the task conditions. (Author) ED173357

Morse, J. A., & Tillman, M. M. H. (1972). Effects on Achievement of Possession of Behavioral Objectives and Training Concerning Their Use. Fifty-two college students, enrolled in an introductory psychology course, served as subjects for this study, the purposes of which were: (1) to determine whether supplying subjects with a list of behavioral objectives causes them to focus their learning efforts on the specified behaviors to the extent that attention to non-specified behaviors is reduced; and (2) to determine whether supplying subjects with training which stresses the nature of behaviorally-stated objectives enables more effectively. The entire experimental procedure, including materials used, is clearly elaborated. As hypothesized, the findings indicate that possession of objectives leads to higher performance on objectives-related test items than on non-objectives-related items. In addition, Ss given objectives were able to recall information not mentioned by objectives at least as well as Ss not given objectives. Finally, no support was given to the hypothesis that training in the nature of objectives enhances subsequent performance on the learning task. (TL) Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. ED061531

Murphy, M. D., & Brown, A. A. L. (1975). Incidental Learning in Preschool Children as a Function of Level of Cognitive Analysis. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 19 3 509-523. Preschoolers' recall and clustering of organized lists of pictures were examined either under deliberate instructions to remember or in incidental learning situations. It was concluded that the activity of the children determines depth of processing and subsequent retention, not the intent to remember. (JMB) EJ124719

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Newman, L. S. (1990). Intentional and Unintentional Memory in Young Children: Remembering vs. Playing. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology v50 n2 p243-58 Oct 1990. In a study of recall in gamelike and lessonlike contexts, 4- and 5-year-old children were asked to remember or to play with a set of 16 pictures or toys in a naturalistic or laboratory setting. The children's behavior and language were measured during two-minute study phases, after which recall was assessed. (BC) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0022-0965 EJ421799

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Oshima, J. (1995). Differences in Knowledge-Building between Two Versions of CSILE: An Information-Flow Analysis. Canada; Ontario Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. The Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILE) database has been developed to support students' progressive discourse. Students can externalize their thoughts in the database in the form of texts or graphics, and then they can manipulate their represented knowledge in building further knowledge. They can asynchronously collaborate and add reflective thoughts to their friends' work. The present study examined two fifth- and sixth-grade combined classrooms using different types of systems in two consecutive years. In the first year, 29 students used a CSILE version in which they reported their thoughts on the study topic, electricity, in individual text or graphic notes. In the second year, 27 students used another version in which they reported notes on the topic of force in discussion notes with proposed problems. Basic skills were not different in the two samples, but students in the second year were more engaged in knowledge-transforming information flow and more able to manipulate different types of externalized knowledge in their written discourse. Two appendixes contain examples of knowledge discourse and knowledge changes. (Contains 1 table, 6 figures, and 24 references.) (SLD) ED390930

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Palincsar, A. S. (1990). Providing the Context for Intentional Learning. Remedial and Special Education (RASE) v11 n8 p36-39 Nov-Dec 1990. In response to Derry (EC 233 120), this article illustrates features of effective learning strategy instruction with disabled learners by examining the decisions the teacher confronts, such as determining the purposes of instruction, the context in which instruction occurs, and the roles of the teacher and student. (Author/DB) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0741-9325 EJ425761

Palincsar, A. S., & Klenk, L. (1992). Fostering Literacy Learning in Supportive Contexts. Journal of Learning Disabilities v25 n4 p211-25,229 Apr 1992. This paper focuses on enhancement of literacy skills of young children with learning disabilities, through intentional learning, reciprocal teaching, and redefining the contexts of early literacy learning. Research results show that children benefit from strategy instruction occurring within classroom cultures that support collaborative discourse, flexible application of comprehension strategies, and meaningful literacy opportunities. (Author/JDD) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0022-2194 EJ445826

Pavesi, M. (1986). Markedness, Discoursal Modes, and Relative Clause Formation in a Formal and an Informal Context. Studies in Second Language Acquisition v8 n1 p38-55 Feb 1986. Describes a study in which English relative clauses were elicited from two groups of Italian learners: formal learners and informal learners. The results agreed with the order of acquisition predicted by the Accessibility Hierarchy (Keenan and Comrie, 1977, 1979). (Author/SED) UMI EJ337683

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Rabinowitz, F. M., & Andrews, S. S. R. (1973). Intentional and Incidental Learning in Children and the von Restorff Effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology 100 2 315-18. The von Restorff effect was clearly demonstrated in intentional learning and in Type 2 incidental learning, extrinsic case, of children. (Author) EJ087118

Reese, H. W., & Others, A. (1989). Incidental and Intentional Memory in Adulthood and Old Age. West Virginia Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. A cross-sectional study that investigated memory variables in 100 subjects in 4 age ranges (17-22, 40-50, 60-70, and 75-99) found that the 60-70 year olds were more impaired with respect to retrieval than storage and the major problem with memory among the 75-99 year olds was retrieval from short- or long-term memory. Because the study was cross-sectional, differences among the age groups do not necessarily reflect changes with age. Memory tasks in the study included the following: free recall, serial recall, delayed serial recall, and judgment of relative frequency of words, labels, digits, and events. Research participants were tested individually in two sessions in the participants' own homes or in a central location such as a testing room in a senior center, civic center, school, or motel. Each session included 12 tests. Factor analyses of variables were run separately for each age group. The principal components method was used, with varimax rotation, computed separately for each age group with the sexes combined. The first four factors accounted for about half the variance in each age group. The effects of age and sex on memory were assessed by using age group and sex as sources of variance in analyses of variance, with t-tests following up significant overall effects. (CML) ED353429

Renfrow, M. J. (1983). Accurate Drawing as a Function of Training of Gifted Children in Copying and Perception. Educational Research Quarterly v8 n3 p27-32 1983. The result of an investigation to establish evidence that trained gifted children, ages 8 to 11, would draw more realistically than untrained gifted children showed a significant difference between experimental and control groups and a significant interaction between age and treatment. (Author/PN) UMI EJ296246

Rickards, J. P., & August, G. G. J. (1975). Generative Underlining Strategies in Prose Recall. Journal of Educational Psychology 67 860-5. Examination was made of subject-generated as compared to experimenter-provided underlining of sentences that were least or most important to the overall structure of the passage presented. Additionally, some readers were instructed to underline any one sentence per paragraph, while others were asked simply to read the passage. (Author/BJG) EJ133653

Rickards, J. P., & Others, A. (1976). Processing Effects of Common-Word and Number Questions Inserted in Reading Materials. Journal of Educational Research 69 7 274-7. Two types of questions were inserted in reading material either before or after certain text segments to see how they affected learning. (MM) EJ143815

ROSS, D. (1967). THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTENTIONAL LEARNING, INCIDENTAL LEARNING AND TYPE OF REWARD IN PRESCHOOL EDUCABLE MENTAL RETARDATES. THE PURPOSE OF THIS RESEARCH WAS TO STUDY THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT REWARDS FOR INTENTIONAL LEARNING ON INCIDENTAL LEARNING ACQUIRED BY PRESCHOOL EDUCABLE MENTAL RETARDATES IN A GAME SITUATION. AN ADULT EXPERIMENTER TAUGHT EACH RETARDATE TO PLAY MOTOR, SOCIAL AND PROBLEM-SOVLING GAMES (INTENTIONAL LEARNING.) A SECOND ADULT SERVED AS A PLAYER AND EXHIBITED MANNERISMS (INCIDENTAL LEARNING) WHILE PLAYING. TO EMPHASIZE THE RULES, THIS PLAYER MADE ERRORS AND WAS CORRECTED BY THE EXPERIMENTER. THE PLAYERS EITHER WERE GIVEN TANGIBLE, SYMBOLIC, OR SOCIAL REWARDS, OR WERE NOT REWARDED. THEY RECEIVED ONLY ONE TYPE OF REWARD IN ANY ONE GAME. IT HYPOTHESIZED THAT THE HIGHEST INTENTIONAL AND LOWEST INCIDENTAL SCORES WOULD RESULT FROM TANGIBLE REWARDS. THE BEST INTENTIONAL-INCIDENTAL SCORE COMBINATION WOULD RESULT FROM SOCIAL AND SYMBOLIC REWARDS. THE HIGHEST INCIDENTAL SCORES WOULD OCCUR IN THE NO-REWARD CONDITION. THE FOLLOWING RESULTS WERE OBTAINED. IN EXPERIMENT ONE INTENTIONAL LEARNING DID NOT VARY AS A FUNCTION OF TYPE OF REWARD. SUCCESS IN THE GAME APPEARED TO BE A MORE POWERFUL REINFORCER THAN THE REWARDS OFFERED BY THE EXPERIMENTER (THE RETARDATE TYPICALLY EXPERIENCES SOCIAL PLAY DEPRIVATION AND FAILURE IN GAME SITUATIONS). IN EXPERIMENT TWO ALL RETARDATES WERE ACCUSTOMED TO SUCCESS IN GAME SITUATIONS. THE HIGHEST INTENTIONAL SCORES RESULTED FROM TANGIBLE REWARDS. THE HIGHEST INCIDENTAL SCORES OCCURRED IN THE NO-REWARD CONDITION. THE INCIDENTAL SCORES IN THE TANGIBLE AND SOCIAL REWARD CONDITIONS DID NOT DIFFER. BOTH TANGIBLE AND SOCIAL REWARDS WERE ASSOCIATED WITH A SATISFACTORY INTENTIONAL-INCIDENTAL SCORE COMBINATION. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE GAMES ARE PRESENTED IN THE APPENDIX. A REFERENCE LIST INCLUDES 32 ITEMS. (AUTHOR) Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. Report/ISSN: BR-6-8144 ED016348

Ross, D. M., & Others, A. (1973). Intentional Training vs. Observational Learning of Mediational Strategies in EMR Children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 78 3 292-99. Pretest measures of paired-associate learning and mediational skill were obtained on 36 educable mentally retarded children in primary grades, after which the children were assigned in groups of 12 to an intentional training condition, an observational learning condition, and a control group condition. (Author/MC) EJ094691

Rothkopf, E. Z. K. R. (1972). Exploration of the Effect of Density and Specificity of Instructional Objectives on Learning from Text. Journal of Educational Psychology 63 4 295-302. Experiment was an attempt to explore the use of instructional objectives as directions that describe the relevant instructional content in written discourse to subjects. (Authors) EJ062335

Rowley, P. (1994). Collaborative Technology for Revolutionary Classroom Structures. Recreating the Revolution. Proceedings of the Annual National Educational Computing Conference (15th, Boston, Massachusetts, June 13-15, 1994); see IR 017 841. Canada; Ontario Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. The Toronto-born Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environment System (CSILE) is an advanced computer-supported cooperative learning system being developed at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. This system has been refined by working closely with teachers and students engaged in an educational approach called "knowledge-building." This paper explores the guiding principles of this approach: deep understanding through conflict between new knowledge and old preconceptions; scrupulously organized pursuit of understanding; knowledge in a social context; and knowledge building as a goal rather than an eventuality. Used with this approach, CSILE has demonstrably positive effects on standardized test scores and a variety of measures of deep understanding. Specific technical ways in which CSILE supports an information-sharing infrastructure tailored to this theory are discussed, including the ability to aggregate knowledge, to link pieces of knowledge, and to create integrated discussions. CSILE's capabilities are compared with the AppleShare fileserver. Reproductions of computer screens illustrate the discussion. (Contains 12 references.) (Author/BEW) ED396677

Royer, P. N. (1977). Effects of Specificity and Position of Written Instructional Objectives on Learning from Lecture. Journal of Educational Psychology 69 1 40-5. Subjects received either specific or general objectives before or after the four sections of the audiotaped lecture. A control group received no objectives. Results on the use of objectives with written text showed that the before position increased intentional learning more than the after position. Incidental learning was significantly higher than intentional learning for treatment groups. (Author/MV) EJ156122

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Sagaria, S. D. D., & Vesta, F. F. J. (1978). Additive Effects of Pre- and Post-Adjunct Questions in Prose Text. Pennsylvania Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. The relationship between placement of adjunct questions in instructional material and incidental and intentional learning was investigated. A total of 150 undergraduate students assigned to five experimental groups studied ten paragraphs with questions interspersed at different locations in the text. Performance on incidental items was significantly lower in the question before (QB) than in the question after (QA), question before and after (QBA), and the no-question (NoQ) groups. Performance on intentional items by the QB subjects was significantly lower than the QA and the QBA subjects. The results also suggest that the QB and the QA effects of questions combined additively to produce the performance of the QBA subjects. A surprising finding indicates that although performances differed between the QB, QBA, and QA conditions in the immediate recall task, post reading performance of the QA and QBA subjects became equal and above the QB subjects. This may mean that depth-of-processing is the relevant operation to focus upon. Educational implications are discussed. (Author/RD) ED167626

Sagaria, S. D. D., & Vesta, F. F. J. (1978). Learner Expectations Induced by Adjunct Questions and the Retrieval of Intentional and Incidental Information. Journal of Educational Psychology 70 3 280-8. One hundred-fifty subjects studied a passage with questions interspersed at different locations. Total level of acquisition was highest in treatments involving postquestions and no questions. The results were attributed to the influence of adjunct questions on learner expectations that affect the selective processing of information. (Author/JAC) Reprint Available (See p. vii): UMI EJ189600

Salomon, G., & Globerson, T. (1987). Skill May Not Be Enough: The Role of Mindfulness in Learning and Transfer. International Journal of Educational Research v11 n6 p623-37 1987. Mindfulness is the volitional, metacognitively guided use of nonautomatic, usually effortful processes. The dimension of mindfulness-mindlessness plays various important roles in different kinds of learning and transfer situations. Theoretical, operational, and educational implications of mindfulness are discussed; and relevant research is reviewed. (TJH) UMI EJ374445

Scardamalia, M., & Others, A. (1987). Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environments. Canada; Ontario Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILE) is a project using computer software to promote the constructive processes involved in intentional learning. CSILE enables groups of students to build a collective database (knowledge base) of their thoughts, in the form of pictures (created by students using a color graphics editor) and written notes. CSILE was initially developed for university and graduate-level students; current research focuses on 64 students in two sixth-grade classes. The report offers 11 principles applicable to a variety of educational software and then discusses the application of that principle to the project: (1) make knowledge-construction activities overt; (2) maintain attention to cognitive goals; (3) treat knowledge lacks in a positive way; (4) provide process-relevant feedback; (5) encourage learning strategies other than rehearsal; (6) encourage multiple passes through information; (7) support varied ways for students to organize their knowledge; (8) encourage maximum use and examination of existing knowledge; (9) provide opportunities for reflectivity and individual learning styles; (10) facilitate transfer of knowledge across contexts; and (11) give students more responsibility for contributing to each other's learning. CSILE examples cover both how principles were being realized, and how novices can at times circumvent the goal of eliciting extra constructive effort. (LPG) ED288913

Scardamalia, M., & Others, A. (1989). Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environments. Journal of Educational Computing Research v5 n1 p51-68 1989. Describes the design of the Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environment (CSILE), a database that allows the storage and retrieval of information in several media, e.g., text and drawings. Research on cognitive abilities and learning strategies is reviewed, learner control is discussed, and the implementation of CSILE in grades five and six is described. (26 references) (LRW) EJ389346

Scribner, S., & Sachs, P. (1991). Knowledge Acquisition at Work. IEE Brief Number 2. New York Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Institute on Education and the Economy, Teachers College, Box 174, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027 (free). Report/ISSN: ISSN-1059-2776. An exploratory investigation attempted to determine how learning at work actually takes place and in what ways learning on the job differs from classroom learning. The study was based on extensive observations and interviews over a 5-year period at two manufacturing plants that implemented a computer-based system known as Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP). (MRP is both a computer system and a theory of manufacturing, designed to integrate information from all aspects of a company's operations to guide employees making production and inventory decisions.) The occupation of planner was selected for the core study since a planner within an MRP environment uses the system in relation to everyday production knowledge. Three knowledge domains were identified: MRP as a theoretical system, practical production knowledge, and functional production knowledge. The study found the following: (1) daily, everyday work activities are settings for learning; (2) without extensive academic, professional, or even on-the-job training, people can achieve conceptual understanding on the job; (3) how the workplace is set up, not the presence of technology, enhances or inhibits learning; and (4) because people come to their jobs from a large variety of routes, educational planners need to consider providing multiple and alternative educational forms as being as important as trying to design the one best training program. The study concluded that the workplace clearly is a learning environment and that people can learn formal concepts through work, not only in the classroom. (KC) ED363688

Scruggs, T. E., & Others, A. (1986). Teaching Test-Taking Skills to Elementary-Grade Students: A Meta-Analysis. Elementary School Journal v87 n1 p69-82 Sep 1986. Analyzes the results of previous studies that examined the effects of teaching test-taking skills to elementary school children. Concludes that training in test-taking skills is differentially effective for various subgroups of children, longer training programs are more effective, and training is more effective in the upper elementary grades than in the lower elementary grades. (HOD) UMI EJ342950

Sczechowicz, E., & Hinrichsen, J. J. J. (1980). Effects of Instructional Set on Bender Recall Performance of Learning Disabled and Normal Children. Journal of Personality Assessment v44 n5 p465-69 Oct 1980. Twenty-eight normal and 28 learning disabled children were given the Bender-Gestalt Test under instructional sets of low (standard) attention or high attention. Results failed to support the hypothesis that high attention instructions would lead to differential recall performance of the diagnostic groups. Reprint: UMI EJ237848

Sheehan, P. W. (1972). Role of Imagery in Incidental Learning: Replication and Extension of an Effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology 9 1 226-8. Hypothesis was tested that more high-imagery-arousing than low-imagery-arousing noun stimuli will be recalled in incidental as compared to intentional learning. (Author) EJ063745

Shell, D. F., & Others, A. (1996). Effects of Collaborative, Computer-Supported, Knowledge-Building Communities on High School Students' Knowledge Building and Intentional Learning. Texas Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. This research was conducted as part of Project CIRCLE, a collaborative project between the University of Texas at Austin College of Education, the Austin Independent School District, and the Eanes Independent School District. The intent of the project was to establish collaborative knowledge-building communities in high school classrooms among secondary students and teachers and university students and faculty supported by innovative constructivist uses of computer technology. The primary goal was to determine the effects of such knowledge-building communities on students' approaches to learning. The study took place in one inner city and one suburban high school in the Austin, Texas area. The Student Perceptions of Classroom Knowledge-Building (SPOCK) instrument measured four aspects of students' perceptions of their own knowledge building and intentional learning behavior: (1) knowledge building; (2) question asking; (3) self-regulation; and (4) lack of initiative. In addition, the instrument measured extent of teacher directedness in the classroom and extent of collaborative learning among students. Overall, the results suggest that the infusion of technologies that support knowledge building, intentional learning, and collaboration can enhance the establishment of collaborative knowledge-building communities in high school classrooms and can influence students' perceptions of the classroom environment. (AEF) ED395570

Stephenson, J., & Linfoot, K. (1996). Intentional Communication and Graphic Symbol Use by Students with Severe Intellectual Disability. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education v43 n2 p147-65 1996. This article discusses communicative intent in persons with severe intellectual disability in the context of intervention studies reporting the acquisition of graphic symbol use. The article reviews communicative intent as formulated within psycholinguistic models of language acquisition which emphasize pragmatics and the functions of communicative behavior in social contexts and relates them to the development of graphic symbol use. (CR) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0156-6555 EJ534129

Sweidel, G. B. (1996). Study Strategy Portfolio: A Project to Enhance Study Skills and Time Management. Teaching of Psychology v23 n4 p246-48 Dec 1996. Recounts a portfolio writing assignment designed to help students develop better study skills, increase metacognitive awareness, and use self-reflection to evaluate their performance during the semester. Students completed surveys and journal entries assessing their strategies for reading and studying, as well as, performance goals, emotional preparedness, and planning. (MJP) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0098-6283 EJ546626

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Wagner, E. D. (1989). Alphanumeric and Graphic Facilitation Effects: Instructional Strategies To Improve Intentional Learning Outcomes. Proceedings of Selected Research Papers presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (Dallas, TX, February 1-5, 1989). For the complete proceedings, see IR 013 865. Colorado Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Two assessment endeavors were undertaken to determine the relative impact of alphanumeric and graphic instructional mediators upon intentional and incidental learning outcomes in applied instructional contexts. The intent of these investigations was to determine the feasibility of embedding strategic organizational cues within instruction to improve intentional learning outcomes in contexts where direct interactive feedback opportunities are limited. Results indicated that alphanumeric and graphic displays both provided organizational frameworks for subjects to use in immediate recall exercises, and that facilitation effects for alphanumeric and graphic displays were not maintained in delayed recall exercises. (18 references) (Author) ED308848

Warton, P. M. (1993). Responsibility for Homework: Children's Ideas about Self-Regulation. Australia; New South Wales Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. This study investigated children's practices and ideas or perceptions about self-regulation for two particular aspects of schoolwork: completing homework and learning for a class test. Subjects were 86 Anglo children (ages 7, 9, and 11) who were interviewed about their practices and ideas concerning homework completion and test preparation. Results revealed few age differences in practices. However, an age-related shift in ideas was found, from other-regulation in 7-year-old students to self-regulation in 11-year-old students. This finding provided some evidence of a broad developmental progression in children's understanding of both the purpose of learning and their responsibility for homework. No gender differences were found on any of the issues under consideration. (MM) ED361101

Wellman, H. M. (1977). The Early Development of Intentional Memory Behavior. Human Development 20 86-101. A conceptualization of intentional behavior is presented stressing the problem of diagnosis. Methodological requirements for the study of intentional memory development are used in a selective review of the literature. (MS) EJ159278

Wellman, H. M., & Others, A. (1975). Deliberate Memory Behavior in the Delayed Reactions of Very Young Children. Developmental Psychology 11 6 780-787. This study found that 3-year-olds instructed to remember a particular location in a memory task engaged in deliberate behaviors which were positively related to later recall. This was not true for 3-year-olds instructed only to wait or for 2-year-olds in either instructional condition. (JMB) EJ133155

Wenden, A. L. (1985). Facilitating Learning Competence: Perspectives on an Expanded Role for Second-Language Teachers. Canadian Modern Language Review v41 n6 p981-90 May 1985. Considers the implications of research on intentional learning processes for the role of the second language teacher. It is recommended that teachers take on the task of helping their students refine their competence as learners. Techniques for classroom practice are suggested. (MSE) UMI EJ325388

Wilson, T. L., & Hershey, D. D. A. (1996). The Research Methods Script. Teaching of Psychology v23 n2 p97-99 Apr 1996. Describes a class activity that familiarizes students with the major steps of the research process and guides their further organization and comprehension of course material. Students are asked to list the major steps involved in working on a research problem. These lists are compared to those of expert researchers. (MJP) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0098-6283 EJ545299

Wingo, R. F. (1977). Building Business Vocabulary through Intentional and Incidental Learning In Second-Year Typing. Business Education World 57 8-9,29. A study conducted to determine whether second-year typewriting students could learn intentionally and incidentally the meanings of technical business terms through the typing of specially written paragraphs in which the terms were defined within the context demonstrated the effectiveness of this procedure. (TA) EJ160064

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