Folder: Efficacy
Teacher Efficacy (A-E)
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Alley, R., & Ballenger, M. (1990). Moonlighting Teachers Leave Reform Efforts in the Dark. Paper presented at the Single issues are available from Order Fulfillment, American Association of School Administrators, 1901 N. Moore Street, Arlington, VA 22209 ($2.00). Although about 5 percent of all U.S. workers hold second jobs, 300,000 teachers, or 17 percent of America's 2 million teachers, were employed outside the school system during the school year. Moonlighting adversely affects teacher recruitment, job stress, and teacher efficacy. Changes such as better salaries, merit pay, and productive summer employment are suggested. (MLH) EJ411687
Allinder, R. M. (1995). An Examination of the Relationship between Teacher Efficacy and Curriculum-Based Measurement and Student Achievement., Remedial and Special Education, 16, 4, 247-54 Jul. The effects of personal and teaching efficacy on teachers' use of curriculum- based measurement (CBM) and on student achievement were studied. Nineteen special education teachers each monitored 2 elementary school students with mild disabilities over 16 weeks in math computation using CBM. Teachers with high personal and teaching efficacy more often increased students' end-of-year goals. (Author/SW) EJ506713
Amodeo, L., & others (1981). Developing Teacher Efficacy: A Triple Challenge to Professional Development in the 80's., Action in Teacher Education, 3, 1, 39-44 Win-Spr 1981. The challenge to teacher development in the 1980s focuses on three areas: (1) multicultural education; (2) diagnosis and prescription based on learning styles, as well as on achievement level; and (3) awareness of the differences in function of the right and left hemispheres of the brain. (JN) EJ246389
Ashton, P. T., & And, O. (1982). A Study of Teachers' Sense of Efficacy. Final Report, Volume II. Appendices., 149pp. For related documents, see SP 022 818-819. This volume contains the appendices for the report on the Teacher Efficacy Study, an investigation of teachers' sense of efficacy and the extent to which teachers believe they can have a positive effect on student learning and achievement. Included in this volume are: (1) middle school site descriptions; (2) the middle school questionnaire; (3) school climate measures; (4) the Webb Efficacy Scale; (5) personal efficacy vignettes; (6) the Rotter I-E Scale; (7) a teacher locus of control scale; (8) the high school basic skills teachers' questionnaire; (9) climate and control system coding sheets; (10) a teacher practices observation record; (11) the research for better schools engagement rate form; (12) an observation data sheet; (13) correlations of Rand Efficacy 1 with classroom process variables; (14) correlations of Rand Efficacy 2 with classroom process variables; (15) a teacher efficacy projective test; (16) a report on school climate: improving academic achievement; (17) middle school and high school teacher interview questions; (18) interviews with a high-efficacy and a low- efficacy teacher; (19) a report on teachers who were rated as having high- efficacy attitudes but who expressed low-efficacy attitudes; and (20) a report on social control in school settings. (CJ) ED231835
Ashton, P. T., & And, O. (1983). A Study of Teachers' Sense of Efficacy. Final Report, Executive Summary., 43pp. For related documents, see SP 022 819-820. A conceptual framework for the study of teachers' sense of efficacy was used to determine the extent to which teachers believed they could influence student learning. The framework was based on an extensive review of research literature on teaching, an ethnographic comparison of 2 organizationally different middle schools, and a process-product study of 48 high school basic skills teachers. Significant relationships among teacher efficacy, student-teacher interaction, and student achievement were found. Teachers with high efficacy attitudes tended to maintain high academic standards, concentrate on academic instruction, monitor students' on-task behavior, and develop a warm, supportive classroom environment, and their students had higher achievement test scores than did students of teachers with low efficacy attitudes. Current conditions in the school isolation, uncertainty, powerlessness, and lack of economic rewards and social recognitionappeared to be factors that contribute to a low sense of efficacy in teachers. School organizational structures of teaming, multi-age grouping, and collegial decision-making among teachers appeared to be school factors that may increase teacher efficacy. Further research of teacher efficacy should be conducted within the contexts of teacher education, school organizational structure, beginning teacher socialization, and parent-teacher relations. (Author/CJ) ED231833
Ashton, P., & others (1984). Teachers' Sense of Efficacy: A Self- or Norm-Referenced Construct?, 15p. Two approaches to the measurement of teacher efficacy were investigated to determine whether teachers' sense of self-efficacy is a self-referenced or norm- referenced construct. Two forms of an instrument consisting of 25 teaching problem situations were developed: one required self-referenced responses, while the other required norm-referenced responses. The two forms were randomly distributed to 65 classroom teachers enrolled in graduate classes at the University of Florida (Gainesville). In addition, two items measuring teacher efficacy from a Rand Corporation study and the Marlowe-Crowne Scale of Social Desirability were administered. Efficacy appears to be a norm-referenced, rather than a self-referenced, construct. Teachers appear to evaluate their effectiveness in terms of their performance in comparison to the performance of other teachers. Social desirability bias was a significant factor in the use of self-referenced vignettes. Three tables and one figure illustrate the study. (Author/SLD) ED323221
author., N. s. (1999). Research in the Schools. Volume 6., The individual articles are available in the "Current Index of Journals in Education." Page Length: 168. This journal publishes articles that focus on the results of applied educational research, scholarly reviews of research, descriptions of classroom techniques, studies of assessments, and other topics of interest to educational researchers. Issue number 1 of Volume 6 contains these articles: (1) "'More than Having a Vision': The Emergence of Teacher Leadership in a PDS" (Lisa DeMeulle); (2) "Preparing Leaders for Tomorrow's Schools: The Practitioners' Perspectives" (Frances K. Kochan and William A. Spencer); (3) "Schools without Principals: Do Both Management and Leadership Exist?" (Theodore B. Creighton); (4) "Theoretical Perspectives of Instructional Supervision in Contemporary Textbooks: A Content Analysis" (Barbara L. White and Larry G. Daniel); (5) "University Teachers' Perceived Usefulness of Computer-Assisted Instruction" (Yukiko Inoue); (6) "Math and Reading Tests: Dissimilar Scores Provided by Similar Tests for African-American Students" (Kevin Wickes and John R. Slate); (7) "Screening for Behavior Problems in Preschool: A Comparison of the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) and a Structured Teacher Interview" (Ronald K. Bramblett, Kim B. Dielmann, and Maleah Smithson); and (8) "A Structural Model of Student Career Aspiration and Science Education" (Jianjun Wang). Issue 2 contains: (1) "Examining Professional Development of Principals as Adult Learners" (Diane Ricciardi); (2) "'Drafted into the Front Lines": Teacher Efficacy during School Desegregation in Columbus, Georgia, 1968-1975" (Virginia E. Causey); (3) "The Role of Technology Specialists: Case Studies of Change Agents" (Kenneth M. Proctor and Martha J. Livingston); (4) "Transforming Graduate Teacher Education Classes: Lessons from Educational Psychology" (Carol VanZile-Tamsen); (5) "Breaking the Rote Memorization Mindset of Preservice Teachers Standards-Based Instruction: An Integrated Preservice Teacher Education Model" (Regina Halpin); (6) "Evaluation of Teacher Preparation Graduates by NCATE Accredited Institutions: Techniques Used and Barriers" (J. Jackson Barnette and Keith Gorham); (7) "Person-Fit and the Rasch Model: How Seriously Model Fit Is Affected by Appropriateness Measurements in the Rasch Model" (Necati Engec); and (8) "An Introductory Primer on the Appropriate Use of Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis" (Kevin M. Kieffer). (SLD) ED443821
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Bamburg, J. D. (1994). Raising Expectations To Improve Student Learning. Urban Monograph Series., 38p. The issue of low teacher expectations of students is addressed, bearing in mind that any effort to address low teacher expectations for students that does not address the broader issue of school change will fail. The first section of the monograph explores the relationship between teacher expectations and student achievement. The second section identifies and discusses the factors that contribute to low teacher expectations for students that exist both within the classroom and beyond the classroom door. These include: (1) misuses of testing; (2) misdiagnosis of students' potential to learn; (3) teacher efficacy beliefs; (4) classroom and instructional strategies; (5) lack of resources; (6) lack of parent involvement; and (7) lack of vision and the issue of leadership. The final section describes the changes that must occur in order to resolve the problem of low teacher expectations. Urban educators need to change their beliefs about the abilities of students and their capacities for learning. (Contains 49 references.) (SLD) ED378290
Barfield, V., & Burlingame, M. (1974). The Pupil Control Ideology of Teachers in Selected Schools, Journal of Experimental Education, 42, 4, 6-11 Sum 1974. The primary purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between the teacher's perception of pupil control and three particular variables, namely, the socioeconomic status of the school's clientele, the teacher's sense of efficacy, and the bureaucratic level of the school (elementary, junior, or senior). EJ102037
Bettenhausen, S., & Rogers, E. L. (1992). Self-Efficacy and Performance Ratings of Preservice Teachers in the Area of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders., 22p. This investigation examined the relationship between personal efficacy ratings of preservice teachers seeking licensure in the area of emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) and performance ratings by their practicum supervisors. Forty- five teachers completing the Emotional Behavioral Disorders practicum at the University of Minnesota were asked to complete the Teacher Efficacy Scale, which measures personal efficacy and the teacher's sense of teaching efficacy. No significant differences were found between personal efficacy and teacher ratings. No differences were found between male and female teachers, elementary and secondary teachers, or type of practicum placement. The findings of this study yielded contrary results to prior research in teacher efficacy. Given the unique challenges faced by EBD teachers, studies examining the differences between these teachers and regular education teacher ratings of personal efficacy are suggested. (Contains 12 references.) (JDD) ED369746
Borton, W. M. (1991). Empowering Teachers and Students in a Restructuring School: A Teacher Efficacy Interaction Model and the Effect on Reading Outcomes., 24pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Chicago, IL, April 3-7, 1991). This study was conducted to examine one suburban San Diego (California) school's attempt, under a restructuring plan, to correct resegregation in classroom assignments. A program was developed which combined gifted, regular education, and bilingual students (n=79) in grades three and four with three teachers in a team-teaching approach. Students were redeployed for reading and mathematics based on skill level, but were heterogeneously grouped for other subjects. Research literature suggests that students in such a program should receive the double benefit of working at a level of success while engaging in cooperative learning activities with other students of varying ability; the success of such restructuring efforts is often dependent on teacher and student attitudes toward change. The focus of this paper is on the interaction between teacher efficacy and student attitudes during implementation of a locally designed, cooperative learning strategy aimed at improving learning for all students. Students were assessed three times over a school year for reading scores using the Durrell- Sullivan Reading Test. Teachers were given Gibson and Dembo's Teacher Efficacy Survey. The findings show that student self-esteem is the only significant predictor for reading outcomes. All three groups of students showed Pareto improvement gains in reading skills, and limited-English-proficient students showed significantly greater learning. (LL) ED335341
Brown, K. M., & Anfara, V. A. (2002). The walls of division crumble as ears, mouths, minds and hearts open: a unified profession of middle-level administrators and teachers. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 5(1), 33-49(17). This research is dedicated to tearing down the hierarchical walls of administration and unifying the profession of school leaders and teachers. Data for this qualitative study of middle-level principals were collected from 72 surveys and 17 semi-structured interviews. The analysis introduces the middle school principal as a partner in this collaborative attempt to improve schools for students. They recognize the need for the bureaucratic walls of administrative construction to crumble and give way to professional autonomy, teacher efficacy and supportive environments that enhance teacher commitment and expertise. Through open doors, open ears, open mouths, open minds and open hearts, middle school principals are able to build effectively the necessary support for change. They are present and available, they listen attentively, they communicate appreciation and support, they collaborate and share decision making and, above all, obviously they enjoy what they are doing. The positive characteristics of these middle school leaders pave the way for the walls of division to crumble, and the call for a unified profession to strengthen.
Brownell, M. T. P., Frank M. (1996). The Influence of Teachers' Efficacy Beliefs on Perceived Success in Mainstreaming Students with Learning and Behavior Problems: A Path Analysis., 23p. This study examined factors that predict a general education teacher's efficacy beliefs for instructing students with learning and behavior problems and whether a teacher's perceived efficacy has a stronger direct effect on reported success than other variables. One hundred twenty-eight second grade teachers completed a survey instrument designed to examine the following variables: preservice and inservice preparation, administrative support, class size, socioeconomic status, collegiality, and teacher efficacy. Path analysis techniques were used to test the initial theoretical model. Reduced models were retested and compared to previous models to develop a final model. As hypothesized, teacher's efficacy beliefs had the strongest direct effect on reported success. Collegiality with special education teachers and quality inservice in special education also directly affected teachers' reports of success, but to a lesser degree. However, general education teachers who experienced better collegial relationships with general education peers and students with higher socioeconomic status were less likely to report success in instructing students with learning and behavior problems. Also, quality of preservice preparation had a strong direct effect on teachers' efficacy beliefs as did collegiality with special education teachers. Finally, quality of special education inservice and principal support for mainstreaming students with disabilities positively affected collegiality with special education teachers. (Contains 23 references.) (DB) ED409661
Brownell, M. T., & Pajares, F. (1999). Teacher Efficacy and Perceived Success in Mainstreaming Students with Learning and Behavior Problems., Teacher Education and Special Education, 22, 3, 154-64 Sum. A study of 128 general education teachers found that teachers' efficacy beliefs for instructing students with learning and behavior problems had a direct effect on their perceived success in instructing mainstreamed special education students. Teacher efficacy also mediated the influence of self-perceptions related to the quality of preservice education. (CR) EJ594899 This document is NOT available from the EDRS (EDRS).
Burton, L. D. (1996). How Teachers Teach: Seventh-and Eighth-Grade Science Instruction in the USA., 22pp. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the National Science Teachers Association (St. Louis, MO, March 31, 1996). This study explored possible relationships between teacher efficacy, the use of instructional practices, and context variables. It sought to determine what instructional practices were used by 7th- and 8th-grade science teachers, the extent to which these practices were used, and the relationship between teacher efficacy and the use of specific instructional practices. Teachers from public, private, and parochial schools (N=285) were surveyed using an instrument that consisted of 3 sections: context variables, the Science Methods and Materials Scale, and the Science Teaching Efficacy Beliefs Instrument. Findings include the following: (1) while many significant relationships were found between teacher efficacy and the use of specific instructional practices, the correlations were weak; (2) more than two-thirds of the teachers did not use computers in science instruction; (3) statistically significant positive relationships exist between the use of specific constructivist instructional methods and teacher efficacy; and (4) statistically significant relationships, both positive and negative, exist between the use of absorption instructional methods and teacher efficacy. Contains 3 tables of statistical data and 28 references. (JRH) ED398055
Butcher, J. (1994). Teacher Development Path Patterns in the Management Domain., 33pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Australian Teacher Education Association (24th, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, July 3-6, 1994). This study of student teacher development path patterns in the management domain presents five management schema types and examples of different development path patterns. Cross-sectional data were obtained from 102 participants across years 1 to 3 of preservice teacher education and from expert classroom managers. Longitudinal data were obtained from 147 participants who were studied across more than one occasion. The five management schema types identified include: source and controller of events; a belief in order but little knowledge about how to achieve it; commitment to obtain learning, with variability in strategy; a facilitative strategy replacing directiveness; and flexible adaptation of strategies to contexts. The study found that student teachers' development path patterns are nonlinear in direction and variable in pace. Development involved moving towards greater congruence within the schema aspects and knowledge forms, and between schema and behavior. Two case studies illustrate contrasting development path patterns. The case studies focus upon the development of teachers' management schemata and its separation from other domains, the changes in knowledge (declarative and procedural) and its organization and application, and influences on the development of the schemata. An appendix summarizes the schema types as they relate to forms of knowledge and teacher efficacy levels. (JDD) ED377153
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Campbell, J. (1996). A comparison of teacher efficacy for pre and in-service teachers in Scotland and America. Education, 117(1), 2.
Caplan, M., & And, O. (1992). Social Competence Promotion with Inner-City and Suburban Young Adolescents: Effects on Social Adjustment and Alcohol Use. Paper presented at the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 1 p56-63 Feb 1992. Assessed impact of school-based social competence training on skills, social adjustment, and self-reported substance use of 282 sixth and seventh graders. Found positive training effects on subjects' skills in handling interpersonal problems and coping with anxiety. Teacher ratings revealed improvements in subjects' constructive conflict resolution with peers, impulse control, and popularity. Self-report ratings indicated gains in problem-solving efficacy. (Author/NB) EJ442630
Causey, V. E. (1999). "Drafted into the Front Lines": Teacher Efficacy during School Desegregation in Columbus, Georgia, 1968-1975., Research in the Schools, 6, 2, 9-24. Examined the historical roots and present significance for those on the front lines of school desegregation through a case study of the Columbus, Georgia schools. Findings show that the demands of white constituencies and needs of white students remained the priority. (SLD) EJ610707
Cavanaugh, R. F., & Dellar, G. B. (1997). Towards a Model of School Culture., 21pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Chicago, IL, March 24-28, 1997). In recent times, sociological constructs have been used to examine school culture, viewing schools as learning communities rather than formal organizations. This paper describes use of the School Cultural Elements Questionnaire (SCEQ) to investigate the culture of schools in Western Australia. The SCEQ was first administered to 422 teachers in 8 Western Australian schools; 1 year later, it was administered to 146 teachers in 3 secondary schools. Teachers in two of the secondary schools were also interviewed. Data were used to develop the School Improvement Model of School Culture, which depicts the relationships among the six cultural elements and their effect on the overall school culture. The six elements that affect school improvement include teacher efficacy, an emphasis on learning, collegiality, collaboration, shared planning, and transformational leadership. The model views school culture as an open-systems structure in which an equilibrium is maintained between interactive internal elements and external factors. The model embodies some of the following propositions: (1) School culture is composed of cultural elements; (2) cultural elements facilitate cultural maintenance and growth; (3) cultural elements are vehicles for improving the effectiveness of schools; (4) cultural growth and school improvement occur when the cultural elements are well developed; (5) strong cultures are resilient when subject to external pressures; (6) weak cultures are inherently unstable and can be further destabilized or strengthened when subject to external pressures; and (7) successful school improvement is dependent on utilization of culturally oriented planning and implementation strategies. (Contains 23 references.) (LMI) ED408687
Cavanaugh, R., & Dellar, G. B. (1997). School Culture: A Quantitative Perspective on a Subjective Phenomenon., 20pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Chicago, IL, March 24-28, 1997). This paper describes a quantitative approach to the study of the culture and improvement of schools. The School Cultural Elements Questionnaire (SCEQ) was developed to measure the aspects of the interpersonal relationships among school staff, which were expected to affect schools' instructional programs. The SCEQ measures six elements of school culture that are conducive to improved student- learning outcomes, including teacher efficacy, emphasis on learning, collegiality, collaboration, shared planning, and transformational leadership. Data were gathered in two Western Australia secondary schools. The SCEQ was administered to teachers, and interviews were conducted with one-third of the teachers (in the English, mathematics, science, and social-science departments) at each school. The study found statistically significant differences between the cultures of the two schools for three of the six cultural elements. When administered one year later, the questionnaire data showed that one school underwent major cultural change with statistically significant changes in three of the six elements. By measuring aspects of schools related to their educative purposes, the SCEQ provides information to assess the readiness of schools for improvement, design improvement programs, and monitor the impact of improvement initiatives. (Contains 11 references and 8 figures.) (LMI) ED408685
Chambers, S. M., Henson, R. K., & Sienty, S. F. (2001). Personality Types and Teaching Efficacy as Predictors of Classroom Control Orientation in Beginning Teachers., Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Southwest Educational Research Association (24th, New Orleans, LA, February 1-3, 2001). Page Length: 29. This study explored the personality types of beginning emergency permit teachers to determine whether those pursuing alternative certification displayed patterns in personality type. It also investigated the predictive relationship between personality types and teachers' beliefs concerning control in classroom management. Participants were 120 teachers pursuing teacher certification through an emergency permit teacher education program at a mid-sized Texas university. Participants were administered the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (which measured personality type, the Attitudes and Beliefs on Classroom Control Inventory, and a revised version of the Teacher Efficacy Scale). Results indicated that the teachers were somewhat dispersed in personality types, but they tended to emphasize the sensing and thinking dimensions. Regression analyses suggested that personal teaching efficacy was a stronger predictor of instructional classroom management than personality type. However, personality type was a stronger predictor than efficacy of people management beliefs. Results indicated a slight tendency for the emergency certification teachers to be interventionist in their classroom control orientations. (Contains 51 references.) (Author/SM) ED452184
Clifford, E. F., & Green, V. P. (1996). The Mentor-Protege Relationship as a Factor in Preservice Teacher Education: A Review of the Literature. Paper presented at the Early Child Development and Care, 125, 73-83 Nov 1996. Reviews the literature on various factors within the mentor-protege relationship that foster preservice teachers' development of competence and self-efficacy belief. Discusses Vygotsky's mediated learning as a factor in the development of mentor-protege and protege teacher efficacy, teacher self-efficacy beliefs, roles and characteristics of mentors in education, and empathy as it relates to relationship building. (MOK) EJ533046
Coladarci, T., & Breton, W. A. (1991). Teacher Efficacy, Supervision, and the Special Education Resource-Room Teacher., 30pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Chicago, IL, April 2-6, 1991). The primary purposes of this study were to establish the validity of the Gibson and Dembo (1984) teacher efficacy scale (modified for use by resource-room teachers) and to examine the association between resource-room teacher efficacy and the reported frequency and utility of the instructional supervision these teachers received. The 580 Maine resource teachers who participated completed a survey rating teacher efficacy (personal and general) and the frequency and utility of supervision they received. Results indicate that the perceived utility of supervision, not its frequency, significantly predicted teacher efficacy in this group. That is, teachers who felt their supervision was "helpful" tended to report a higher sense of teacher efficacy than those who reported less positive views of the supervision they received. This finding held irrespective of sex, age, or job satisfaction, each of which significantly and positively predicted teacher efficacy in its own right. Two tables provide descriptive statistics and the multiple regression analysis. A modified 30-item teacher efficacy scale is appended. (SM) ED330684
Cole, K. M. (1995). Novice Teacher Efficacy and Field Placements., 18pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association (Biloxi, MS, November 9, 1995). This study examined changes in novice teachers' feelings of self-efficacy (the belief that he or she can be successful in affecting student performance) and their beliefs about teaching as they completed a clinical experience in their teacher education program. It also attempted to identify factors which influenced these changes and to examine early novice teachers' perceptions of teacher roles and beliefs about teacher routines. Participants included 82 novice teachers, of whom 19 completed 6 hours of clinical placement and 63 completed 32 hours of clinical experience focusing on teaching and on the routine duties of elementary teachers. The findings indicated: (1) students completing an extended field experience showed an increase in their feelings of personal efficacy at the end of their field experience; students who completed shorter clinical visits did not; (2) outcome expectancy efficacy was not affected by the variation in clinical placements; (3) early novice teachers in both groups rated themselves as confident prior to and after the clinical experience; (4) prior to their first clinical placement, early novice teachers in both groups were likely to assume a "student stance" when answering questions about what goes on in schools on a daily basis; and (5) students in both groups showed little change in responses to questions about factors not directly under teacher control and to questions regarding typical lesson settings and the evaluation of student progress. The results suggested that field experiences might be modified in order to make them more effective, and that novice teachers early in the program may not even be aware that they possess pre-existing beliefs about teaching and classroom routines. (Contains 42 references.) (ND) ED393849
Corcoran, T. B., & Wilson, B. L. (1986). The Search for Successful Secondary Schools: The First Three Years of the Secondary School Recognition Program., 175p. The 571 secondary schools selected by the United States Department of Education for recognition as exemplary institutions represented urban, suburban and rural communities. The proportions of minority students were not markedly different from the national distribution, nor did the socio-economic status of families with students differ greatly from national statistics. Outstanding characteristics of these schools included: (1) they tended to have larger enrollments than secondary schools in the nation as a whole; (2) there were almost as many newly appointed principals as experienced principals in the schools; (3) there were no significant increases in graduation requirements; (4) none of the schools reported attendance below 90 percent; and (5) more schools encouraged students to pursue higher education than high schools nationally. The recognized schools had unusual strengths in the areas of: (1) student discipline; (2) extracurricular participation; (3) recognition of student behavior and performance; (4) school climate; (5) rates of student and teacher attendance; (6) attention to academic learning time; (7) teacher efficacy; and (8) community support. This report presents an overview of the Secondary School Recognition Program and discusses the characteristics of the selected schools and the attributes and dynamics of their successful programs, as well as the challenges they represent for educational policymakers in raising the standards and performance of secondary schools nationwide. (JD) ED275679
Costa, J. L. d. (1995). Teacher Collaboration: A Comparison of Four Strategies. Paper presented at the Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 41, 4, 407-20 Dec 1995. Data on teacher attitudes, behavior, and efficacy; student attitudes, behavior, and achievement; and classroom characteristics were collected in 26 elementary classrooms in British Columbia and related to 4 teacher collaboration strategies. Classroom observation by teaching partner was found to be an essential element of teacher collaboration aimed at increasing achievement and teacher efficacy. Contains 46 references. (SV) EJ518701
Cousins, J. B., & And, O. (1992). Teacher-Teacher Interaction and Knowledge Use., 90p. This project, a multiple case study, was conducted to learn more about the conditions under which teacher collaboration might be expected to occur; to improve understanding of variation in the form of collaboration among teachers; and to understand more about the consequences of such activity on teachers and students. Data were collected from 95 interviews in 4 elementary schools. One of these schools was subsequently dropped for failing to meet selection criteria. The findings, based on 72 interviews in the remaining 3 schools, suggest that consequences of teachers' collaborative efforts are substantial. Extrinsic rewards such as instrumental use of knowledge and support for teacher decision making tended to be limited to information exchange, joint planning, and participatory interactions. Intrinsic rewards were also derived from such encounters but were more strongly associated with deeper levels of joint work. Salient intrinsic rewards included more efficient communication and development of shared meaning, improved teacher efficacy, a sense of belonging, and enhanced understanding of students. Organizational conditions, including principal coordination and support, and collaborative norms in the schools, supported the sorts of teacher-teacher interaction observed. Appendices include a teacher- teacher interaction profile, interview guides, case description assessment form, cover letters, and notes for data analysis. (LL) ED348361
Cousins, J. B., & Walker, C. A. (2000). Predictors of Educators' Valuing of Systematic Inquiry in Schools., Special issue titled "Educational Evaluation at the Turn of the Millennium.". Conducted an exploratory survey of 310 educators to investigate the variables that best predict educators' attitudes toward systematic inquiry in schools. Significant proportions of the variance in the dependent variables were explained by prior participation in research and personal teacher efficacy. Identifies other factors with modest explanatory value. (SLD) EJ610733
Cowley, K. S. (1999). A Study of Teacher Efficacy and Professional Learning Community in Quest Schools. Revised Version. This report discusses the administration of two instruments to faculty at 19 schools involved in the Appalachia Educational Laboratory's Quest project, which helps schools with educational reform efforts and challenges norms embedded in traditional school cultures. This study examined several constructs, including teacher efficacy, professional learning community, and organizational efficacy, exploring the characteristics of and interrelationships between Hord's "School Professional Staff as Learning Community" survey and Guskey's "Teaching Questionnaire" survey at the 19 schools. School staff were introduced to the surveys during the "Quest Inquiry into Improvement" conference, then a contact person at each school received survey packets for distribution to faculty members. Completed surveys were returned by March 1998. Of 850 surveys mailed, 624 usable forms were returned. Data analysis indicated that the amount of variation among teachers' views on internal and external efficacy and professional learning communities was fairly consistent both within and across schools. Elementary teachers were more similar than high school teachers in their views regarding professional learning communities. High school teachers felt less efficacious and less part of a professional learning community than did elementary teachers. There was low correlation between professional learning community and teacher efficacy scores. Demographic variables contributed little to the variance of each dependent variable scale score. There were some differences by gender. Results indicate that the scales had adequate reliability. (Contains 11 references.) (SM) ED431758
Cowley, K. S. (March 1999). A Study of Teacher Efficacy and Professional Learning Community in Quest Schools. Revised Version. This report discusses the administration of two instruments to faculty at 19 schools involved in the Appalachia Educational Laboratory's Quest project, which helps schools with educational reform efforts and challenges norms embedded in traditional school cultures. This study examined several constructs, including teacher efficacy, professional learning community, and organizational efficacy, exploring the characteristics of and interrelationships between Hord's "School Professional Staff as Learning Community" survey and Guskey's "Teaching Questionnaire" survey at the 19 schools. School staff were introduced to the surveys during the "Quest Inquiry into Improvement" conference, then a contact person at each school received survey packets for distribution to faculty members. Completed surveys were returned by March 1998. Of 850 surveys mailed, 624 usable forms were returned. Data analysis indicated that the amount of variation among teachers' views on internal and external efficacy and professional learning communities was fairly consistent both within and across schools. Elementary teachers were more similar than high school teachers in their views regarding professional learning communities. High school teachers felt less efficacious and less part of a professional learning community than did elementary teachers. There was low correlation between professional learning community and teacher efficacy scores. Demographic variables contributed little to the variance of each dependent variable scale score. There were some differences by gender. Results indicate that the scales had adequate reliability. (Contains 11 references.) (SM) ED431758
Cowley, K. S., & Educational Resources Information Center (U.S.). (1999). A study of teacher efficacy and professional learning community in Quest schools ( Rev. version. ed.). Charleston, W. Va. [Washington, DC]: Appalachia Educational Laboratory ; U.S. Dept. of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement Educational Resources Information Center. Ed 1.310/2:431758
Crowther, D. T., & Cannon, J. R. (1998). How Much Is Enough? Preparing Elementary Science Teachers through Science Practicums., 16pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Education of Teachers of Science (Minneapolis, MN, January 9, 1998). Science education and the preparation of science teachers have been of great concern over the past two decades. This research investigated the influence of an extended elementary science teaching practicum upon preservice elementary teachers' (N=19) science self-efficacy. It explored both quantitatively and qualitatively the progression of teacher efficacy and outcome expectancy of preservice elementary education majors as well as the influence of a science methods course before, during, or after a practicum experience. The manipulated variable in this study was the practicum experience and teaching science lessons to children on a daily basis. The qualitative parameters of this study included pre- and post-interviews, supervisor and cooperating teacher observation notes, and student journal analysis. This study found that there was a significant difference in the experience of the practicum students who had previously taken science methods as compared to the participants who had not taken science methods or who were currently enrolled in the science methods course. It was also found that the period of 10 weeks actual teaching in the classroom was a good experience for the participants involved. Contains 26 references. (Author/ASK) ED415112
Crowther, D. T., & Cannon, J. R. P. L. (1999). How Much Is Enough? Preparing Elementary Science Teachers through Science Practicums. This paper presents the results of a study that both quantitatively and qualitatively studied the relationship between the duration of a science education practicum and elementary education majors' self-efficacy beliefs related to science teaching. Subjects included 64 preservice elementary education majors. A notable qualitative difference was found in the experience of the practicum students who had previously taken science methods as compared to the students who had not taken science methods or who were concurrently enrolled in the science methods course. (Contains 26 references.) (WRM) ED443671
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da Costa, J. L. (1993). A Study of Teacher Collaboration in Terms of Teaching-Learning Performance., 61pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Atlanta, GA, April 12-16, 1993). This study was conducted to investigate the relationship between teacher participation in a teacher collaboration program and teaching-learning outcomes. The consultation approaches promoted collegial interactions of teachers on a professional level and emphasized self-examination and development of classroom behaviors from the individual teacher's value and belief perspectives. A review of the literature reveals positive outcomes for both teachers and pupils when teachers engage in the use of collaborative consultation. Participants in this investigation consisted of 30 elementary school teachers from each of 2 suburban public school districts in British Columbia. Data were collected from classes at two points during the school year, and information based on the following constructs was obtained from teachers, teaching partners, and pupils as appropriate: teacher trust for the teaching partner; teaching partner's supervisory beliefs; degree of teacher reflection; teacher efficacy and classroom behavior; and pupil achievement, attitudes, and behavior. A discussion of the findings (displayed in tabular form) and implications and recommendations based on informants' suggestions complete the document. Appendixes provides descriptions of terms as well as data collection instruments and procedures. (Contains approximately 100 references.) (LL) ED362472
da, C., Jose L., & Riordan, G. (1996). Teacher Efficacy and the Capacity To Trust., 24pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (New York, NY, April 8-12, 1996). This study explored the relationship between teachers' sense of efficacy and their willingness to engage in a work-focused, trusting, professional relationship with colleagues. Interviews and conference transcripts were gathered from 10 dyads of teachers from three elementary schools in a large Canadian city. Each dyad engaged in at least four collaborative consultation cycles, each consisting of: (1) a pre-observation goal setting conference; (2) classroom observation data collection; and (3) a post-observation data sharing and analysis conference. Each post-observation conference was audiotaped and studied by researchers as preparation for a research interview following each cycle. Results suggest that increasing confidence enables teachers to allow fellow teachers to observe them, while less confident teachers have a harder time entering into this trusting relationship. Recommendations include keeping summative evaluation and formative supervision processes distinct, encouraging teachers to select their own partners for collaboration, and pursuing further research on techniques for increasing teachers' confidence in their own abilities. (Contains 18 references.) (PB) ED397010
Dean, G., & Cruz, J. (1992). Preservice Teacher Efficacy: Relationships and Implications. La Educaci{à}on, 36(111/113), 57.
Deemer, S., & Minke, K. (1999). An Investigation of the Factor Structure of the Teacher Efficacy Scale. The journal of educational research, 93(1), 3.
Dembo, M. H., & Gibson, S. (1985). Teachers' Sense of Efficacy: An Important Factor in School Improvement., Elementary School Journal, 86, 2, 173-84 Nov 1985. Identifies the construct of teacher efficacythe extent to which teachers believe they can affect student learningand describes how it influences classroom behavior. The following major variables are considered in terms of development and enhancement of teacher efficacy: teacher education and socialization, personal teacher variables, school organization, and parent teacher relations. (DST) EJ328591
Desimone, L., Finn-Stevenson, M., & Henrich, C. (2000). Whole School Reform in a Low-Income African American Community: The Effects of the CoZi Model on Teachers, Parents, and Students. Urban Education, 35(3), 269-323(255). This article reports the results of a 1-year evaluation of the CoZi model, a whole school reform model that combines Edward Zigler's School of the 21st Century (which includes on-site, daylong, and year-round preschool, after-school care, and family support services) with James Comer's School Development Program, a school management and collaborative decision-making model. The study used written surveys, in-depth interviews, achievement tests, and classroom observations to study teacher, parent, and preschool outcomes in a CoZi elementary school and a comparison school, both of which served predominately disadvantaged students. The CoZi school had significantly higher school climate and parent involvement throughout the year, but across-school changes and levels of achievement, parent-child interaction, parent social and psychological outcomes, and teacher efficacy were not significantly different.
Desmond, C. T. (1991). Mastery Learning: Teacher Belief, Language, and Practice., 20pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Chicago, IL, April 3-7, 1991). The development of a common instructional language used by teachers and administrators to describe their beliefs about student learning and to coach other teachers can be an important factor in the adoption of instructional change. This investigation of the relationship of language, belief, and practice is the culmination of a historical analysis of the school reforms of mastery learning and outcomes-driven education in the Johnson City Central School District, New York. The paper reviews conceptual models of individual behavior and change within organizations, the characteristics of social learning, and the relationship between thought and language. It argues that an instructional language based upon educational research and a commonly shared mission and rooted in the local culture will increase teacher efficacy for both the coaching teacher and the teacher being coached. A common language will also increase the efficiency of communication within the organization. Thus, the tolerance for interdependence between different levels in the system will increase, which will enhance system-wide adoption of instructional change. (Author/AMH) ED336366
Dilworth, M. E., Ed. (1998). Being Responsive to Cultural Differences: How Teachers Learn., 226p. This book offers suggestions for teacher educators to encourage preservice teachers to construct and expand their own skills and techniques for culturally responsive teaching. The book's 3 parts offer 12 chapters. Part 1 focuses on the perceptions of those grappling with culturally responsive practice. Part 2 suggests ways that attention to culture can influence the manner in which teachers approach instruction. Part 3 discusses various approaches to teacher education practice. The chapters are as follows: (1) "The Presence of an Absence: Issues of Race in Teacher Education at a Predominantly White College Campus" (Pearl M. Rosenberg); (2) "Confronting Issues of Race and Power in the Culture of Schools: A Case Study of a Preservice Teacher" (Jane Agee); (3) "Teacher Efficacy: How Do Teachers Feel about Their Abilities to Teach African American Students?" (Valerie Ooka Pang and Velma A. Sablan); (4) "Culture: A View Toward the Unexplored Frontier" (Michael Webb); (5) "The African Advantage: Using African Culture to Enhance Culturally Responsive Comprehensive Teacher Education" (Mwangaza Michael-Bandele); (6) "Multicultural Content Infusion by Student Teachers: Perceptions and Beliefs of Cooperating Teachers" (Michael Vavrus and Mustafa Ozcan); (7) "Prospective Teachers Constructing Their Own Knowledge in Multicultural Education" (Sharon Adelman Reyes, Nayda Capella-Santana, and Lena Licon Khisty); (8) "Culturally Literate Teachers: Preparation for 21st Century Schools" (Claudette Merrell Ligons, Luis A. Rosado, and W. Robert Houston); (9) "What Difference Does Preparation Make? Educating Preservice Teachers for Learner Diversity" (Andrea Guillaume, Carmen Zuniga, and Ivy Yee); (10) "Pursuing the Possibilities of Passion: The Affective Domain of Multicultural Education" (Francisco A. Rios, Janet E. McDaniel, and Laura P. Stowell); (11) "Multicultural Education in Practice: What do Teachers Say?" (Constance L. Walker and Diane J. Tedick); and (12) "Old Messages with New Meanings" (Mary E. Dilworth). (All chapters contain references.) (SM) ED415196
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Edwards, J. L. G., Kathy E. (1999). Persisters versus Nonpersisters: Characteristics of Teachers Who Stay in a Professional Development Program., Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Montreal, Quebec, Canada, April 19-23, 1999). Page Length: 31. This study evaluated differences between persisters and nonpersisters in a 3-year teacher development program. Participants were K-12 teachers from a large school district with both urban and suburban schools. They were part of a grant to help teachers implement state content standards through cognitive coaching, nonverbal classroom management, and monthly dialogue groups. Teachers participated in either treatment or control groups, completing evaluations just before the training began in November 1994 and 10 months after the initial training in September 1995. The assessment measured personal empowerment, teacher efficacy, learner-centered beliefs, conceptual level as psychosocial variables, and school culture. It also examined satisfaction with teaching, satisfaction with current teaching position, and enthusiasm for teaching. Of the 230 treatment group participants, 61.7 percent persisted to project completion. Of the 195 comparison group teachers, 83.1 percent persisted to the final data collection. Few effects were found for personological, background, or school climate variables, with gender and school socioeconomic status being the exceptions. The primary source of differences between persisters and dropouts was in response to the treatment. Participants engaging more actively in the project were more likely to persist. Persistence was also a function of support of the school principal. (Contains 30 references and 10 tables.) ED439115
Edwards, J. L., & And, O. (1996). Factor and Rasch Analysis of the School Culture Survey., 41pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (New York, NY, April 8-12, 1996). This paper examines the School Culture Survey developed by J. Saphier and M. King (1985) and its association with school and teacher characteristics. The research was conducted in the context of a Department of Education Fund for Innovation in Education grant to a large school district in the western United States. Participants were 27 principals and 425 teachers who taught grades kindergarten through 12. Rasch and factor analyses indicated that three subscales comprise the School Culture Survey. They are: (1) Teacher Professionalism and Goal Setting; (2) Administrator Professional Treatment of Teachers; and (3) Teacher Collaboration. Results suggest that administrators perceived that they treated teachers more professionally than teachers thought the administrators did. Teachers with the most positive attitudes were from high or low socioeconomic status (SES) schools, while teachers with the least positive attitudes were from middle SES schools. Teachers with single-age, rather than multiage, classes scored significantly higher on subscale 1, Teacher Professionalism and Goal Setting. Age predicted responses on subscale 3, Teacher Collaboration. Satisfaction with position was a significant predictor for all three subscales. Teacher efficacy, conceptual complexity, and empowerment were significantly correlated with one or more of the three subscales, but at a low level. (Contains 1 figure, 9 tables, and 53 references.) (Author/SLD) ED401290
Edwards, J. L., & And, O. (1996). Teacher Efficacy and School and Teacher Characteristics., 44pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (New York, NY, April 8-12, 1996). This study assessed the relationship between teacher efficacy and teacher conceptual level, teacher empowerment, and school culture. Teacher participants (N=430) were primarily Caucasian females who taught in grades K-12, with the majority at the elementary (83 percent) or middle school (11 percent) level. They were evenly represented in the socioeconomic levels of the schools in which they taught. Analyses of the four surveys administered indicated: higher scores in teaching efficacy for female elementary school teachers with a negative correspondence to years of experience; no correlation to educational level; and significant correlation between efficacy and empowerment, conceptual level, and school culture. Personal teaching efficacy was the most closely related to motivation and teacher professionalism, while teaching efficacy was related to professional treatment by administrators, perceived potency, and values. School administrators had the highest level of personal teaching efficacy. Findings gave a possible profile of a low efficacy teacher as more likely to be male, a high school teacher, with fewer years of teaching experience, functioning at a lower conceptual level, and working in a less professional environment. Seven tables provide data on teacher and administrator characteristics, teacher efficacy, school culture, teacher experience and satisfaction, and correlation between teacher efficacy and other factors. (Contains 74 references.) (CK) ED397055
Edwards, J. L., & Newton, R. R. (1995). The Effects of Cognitive Coaching on Teacher Efficacy and Empowerment., 39pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Francisco, CA, April 18-22, 1995). This study examined the relationship between training in Cognitive Coaching and a number of qualitative and quantitative components of teacher cognition and behavior hypothesized to be positively impacted by such training. Cognitive Coaching involves a planning conference between coach and teacher, classroom observation, and a reflecting conference. The research was conducted in the context of a quasi-experimental post-test only design with 143 participants in 2 groups, one of which received training one year earlier than the other group. The control group received no training. Results were measured by the Teacher Efficacy Scale and The Vincenz Empowerment Scale (subscales are potency, independence, relatedness, motivation, values, and joy of life). Participants in the experimental group received training in 1991 or 1992. Those trained in 1991 tended to score higher on the empowerment scales than both the group trained in 1992 and the control group, and women tended to score higher than men. On the Efficacy Scale, 11 of 12 comparisons with the control group indicated higher efficacy scores for Cognitive Coaching trainees. Teachers trained in Cognitive Coaching were significantly more satisfied with teaching as a career than those not trained. Those who took Cognitive Coaching training expressed more positive feelings about all aspects of their experience as teachers than those who did not. (Contains 73 references.) (JB) ED388654
Edwards, J. L., Green, K. E., & Lyons, C. A. (1998). Personal Empowerment, Efficacy, and Environmental Characteristics., Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Diego, CA, April 13-17, 1998). Page Length: 41. This study examines the personal empowerment and efficacy of teachers, relating these constructs to environmental characteristics in order to provide information for school counselors who are helping teachers in personal growth. The study also assesses the relationship to teacher conceptual level in order to determine its relationship to empowerment and efficacy. A group of 411 teachers completed a collection of scales and surveys in the spring of 1997. Multiple regressions were conducted for the Vincenz Empowerment Scale (Vincenz, 1990) with the School Culture Survey (Saphier, 1985), Teacher Efficacy Scale (Gibson and Dembo, 1984), Learner-Centered Battery (McCombs and Lauer, 1997), Standards-Based Implementation Survey (Seahorn, 1995), and Paragraph Completion Method (Hunt, Butler, Noy, and Rosser, 1978), as well as for satisfaction and age-related variables. Results indicate that empowerment is related at a low to moderate level to personal teaching efficacy, administrator professional treatment of teachers, reflective self-awareness, honoring of student voice, and satisfaction with teaching as a career. Strategies are presented for school counselors to use in helping teachers increase empowerment. (Contains 67 references.) (SM) ED439112
Edwards, J. L., Green, K. E., & Lyons, C. A. (2002). Personal empowerment, efficacy, and environmental characteristics. Journal of Educational Administration, 40(1), 67-86(20). Examines the personal empowerment and efficacy of teachers, and relates these constructs to environmental characteristics in order to provide information for principals to assist teachers in personal growth. Presents multiple regressions for the Vincenz empowerment scale with The School Culture Survey, teacher efficacy scale, learner-centered battery, paragraph vompletion method, as well as for satisfaction and age-related variables. Multiple Rs were low to moderate for all variables except for the paragraph completion method, which were nonsignificant. Significant predictors of personal empowerment were administrator professional treatment of teachers, reflective self-awareness, honoring of student voice, personal teaching efficacy, and satisfaction with teaching as a career. Presents strategies for principals to use in helping teachers increase in empowerment.
Edwards, J. L., Green, K. E., Lyons, C. A., Rogers, M. S., & Swords, M. E. (1998). The Effects of Cognitive Coaching and Nonverbal Classroom Management on Teacher Efficacy and Perceptions of School Culture., Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Diego, CA, April 13-17, 1998). Page Length: 53. Teachers in this study participated in a 3-year grant funded by the U.S. Department of Education Fund for Innovation in Education. The purpose of the grant was to provide teachers with support in implementing standards-based education. Both treatment and control groups of teachers received instruction in implementing standards-based education from the school district. Teachers in the treatment group also received training in cognitive coaching and coached each other monthly as they implemented the standards. In addition, they received training in nonverbal classroom management, which is a set of nonverbal techniques designed to help teachers decrease the time spent managing in order to increase time spent helping students achieve the standards. Thirty-six coaches received training to provide teachers with feedback on their classroom management skills. Finally, teachers in the project met in monthly dialogue groups across grade levels with teachers from other schools to discuss their implementation of standards. Teachers in the treatment group compared to teachers in the control group increased significantly in teaching efficacy and attitudes toward school culture. Based on these findings, this model appears to have promise for increasing teacher professionalism and efficacy and helping teachers to implement innovations. (Contains 89 references and 14 tables.) (Author/SM) ED439113
Ellett, C. D., Hill, F. H., Liu, X., Loup, K. S., & Lakshmanan, A. (1997). Professional Learning Environment and Human Caring Correlates of Teacher Efficacy., 30pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Chicago, IL, March 24-28, 1997). This paper presents the results of a study of relationships between elements of the school professional learning environment and dimensions of caring and efficacy motivation among teachers. The sample for the study consisted of 1009 elementary and secondary school teachers from 29 schools in two suburban/rural school districts in a southeastern state. The teachers completed questionnaires that measured: teachers' perceptions of a range of conditions in schools that stimulate and support professional learning and growth; teachers' personal and organizational levels of efficacy motivation; and four affective components of human caring. The results showed: that measures of the professional learning environments of schools, human caring, and efficacy motivation can be determined with reasonable reliability; that positive relationships exist between elements of the professional learning environment of schools and teacher levels of efficacy motivation related to goal persistence and response to failure; and that a strong relationship exists between good teacher and administrator relationships and opportunities for professional development. These results are important as they relate to theory building, teacher development, and perhaps school improvement. Five data tables are attached. The appendix provides copies of the demographic information form, and copies of The Professional Learning Environment Inventory, The Teacher Self and Organizational Efficacy Assessment, and The Human Caring Inventory. (Contains 11 references.) (JLS) ED411206
Emmer, E., & Hickman, J. (1991). Teacher Efficacy in Classroom Management and Discipline. Educational and psychological measurement, 51(3), 755.
EnderlinLampeScerie. (1997). Shared Decision Making in School: Effects on Teacher Efficacy. Education, 118(1), 150.
Engel, M. F., & Sawyer, T. M. (1983). Contractual Revision., 18pp. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication (34th, Detroit, MI, March 17-19, 1983). Contractual revision promotes cooperation between teachers and tutors and, being student initiated, provides a method to increase student control over the revision process and encourage students to communicate their strengths and weaknesses in writing to their teachers or tutors. The contractual revision process requires students to form contracts specifying what methods they will employ to eliminate identified weaknesses from future writing. In these contracts the students reveal much about their understanding, or perhaps their misunderstanding, of language "rules" and consequently much about the efficacy of an instructor's own grading and evaluation criteria. While many students remain at a very mechanically oriented level of revision, a few begin to review their writing creatively, seeing the possibilities of communicating through writing, and recognizing that they can revise to say what they mean to say, and review to achieve an accurate, critical assessment of what they have said. Instructors and peer tutors provide in-progress feedback, which is much more conducive to substantive revision than student reworking of already graded essays. The contractual revision program eliminates the frustrations of an ad hoc tutoring program with irregular attendance while allowing the tutor to work closely and regularly enough to effect real student progress. (HTH) ED234415
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