Rural Education | Z

Zaccaro, Stephen J. (2007).  Trait-Based Perspectives of Leadership  American Psychologist, 62, 1. 

The trait-based perspective of leadership has a long but checkered history. Trait approaches dominated the initial decades of scientific leadership research. Later, they were disdained for their inability to offer clear distinctions between leaders and nonleaders and for their failure to account for situational variance in leadership behavior. Recently, driven by greater conceptual, methodological, and statistical sophistication, such approaches have again risen to prominence. However, their contributions are likely to remain limited unless leadership researchers who adopt this perspective address several fundamental issues. The author argues that combinations of traits and attributes, integrated in conceptually meaningful ways, are more likely to predict leadership than additive or independent contributions of several single traits. Furthermore, a defining core of these dominant leader trait patterns reflects a stable tendency to lead in different ways across disparate organizational domains. Finally, the author summarizes a multistage model that specifies some leader traits as having more distal influences on leadership processes and performance, whereas others have more proximal effects that are integrated with, and influenced by, situational parameters.

In December 2004, the Center for Evaluation and Education Policy (CEEP) examined the issue of high school reform in its Education Policy Brief, "Redesigning High Schools to Prepare Students for the Future" (ED488911). Since the publication of that report, many new policies and programs have been established across the country at the local, state, and national levels to further restructure secondary education with the goal of improving student preparation for success in their future endeavors. As a result of these efforts, CEEP presents this update to its initial report. Contained in this brief are the following articles: (1) The Urgency of High School Reform; (2) What Are the Newest High School Reform Efforts Underway Nationally?; (3) What Steps Has Indiana Taken to Improve Student Preparation?; (4) Moving Forward with Reform; and (5) Conclusions and Recommendations. A brief list of web resources is also included.  [This policy brief was produced by the Center for Evaluation and Education Policy, Indiana University.] | [FULL TEXT]

Zastrow, Leona M. (2002).  Evaluation Report of the Native American Consortium for Educational and Assistive Technologies for Indian Children Living on the Acoma and Laguna Pueblos. 

The New Mexico State Department of Education received a federal grant to provide educational and assistive technology for American Indian children living in the Pueblos of Laguna and Acoma, New Mexico. During the 2-year project, more than 229 assistive technology items were purchased, and some form of assistive technology was provided to 121 children aged 3-22. The goal of establishing a working educational and assistive technology loan program for children aged birth to 2 was not implemented because two other nonprofit organizations were already providing this service. Two objectives of establishing a working educational and assistive technology loan program for youth aged 3-21 and 18-21, were implemented 90 and 80 percent, respectively. The objective of identifying alternative funding sources was 75 percent implemented. Two objectives were implemented 100 percent: developing culturally appropriate awareness information and resources about the project, and developing support documents about project activities and outcomes for a diverse audience and making them available through Web sites, presentations, and publications. Program weaknesses included a lack of inclusion of the pueblos in planning and writing the project, poor communication with Laguna concerning supervision and reporting, insufficient decision-making authority by the Native American consortium, the lack of a needs assessment of assistive technology, and understaffing. Appendices present program materials and a case study. | [FULL TEXT]

Zavela, Kathleen J.; Battistich, Victor; Gosselink, Carol A.; Dean, B. J. (2004).  Say Yes First: Follow Up of a Five-Year Rural Drug Prevention Program  Journal of Drug Education, 34, 1. 

"Say Yes First--To Rural Youth and Family Alcohol/Drug Prevention" (SYF) was a 5-year, federally-funded U.S.D.H.H.S. Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP) project that involved 859 children in the class of the year 2000. The children in four rural school districts were followed from Grade 4 to Grade 8 from 1991 to 1996. Initial results in a previous publication showed significant lower drug usage in this cohort than comparison students. A follow-up of 120 SYF participants and 136 comparison students in high schools using the "National Youth Survey" (Follow Up Questionnaire) indicated lower usage of alcohol, tobacco and other drugs for the program students and lower lifetime prevalence of marijuana use for program vs. comparison students. SYF students had higher course grades, lower school absenteeism, more positive attitudes toward school, less trouble in school and less negative self-appraisal. Program students also reported greater participation in sports, more family communication and fewer disagreements or arguments with their parents.

Zehr, Mary Ann (2005).  Oklahoma District Picks Path Less Followed for English-Learners  Education Week, 24, 34. 

In a demographic shift that is ahead of the state as a whole, but representative of many small towns in the region, Hispanics make up nearly 27 percent of the enrollment in the 800-student Hennessey school district, up from 18.2 percent in the 2000-2001 school year. In response to those changes, the district has adjusted how it teaches English-language learners, largely banishing the sink-or-swim approach. The district is one of four in Oklahoma--and one of the few rural school districts in the region--to launch a two-way language-immersion program. In such programs, children from English- and Spanish-language backgrounds study together to learn both languages. This article describes how the district's choice of two-way language immersion instead of English-as-a-second-language instruction, which is by far the most common approach throughout Oklahoma and other states in the region, is paying off.

Zehr, Mary Ann (2006).  Immigration Proposals Could Aid School Hiring Efforts  Education Week, 25, 31. 

Educators have several reasons to follow the volatile debate over immigration in Congress--a debate that ground to a halt last week before lawmakers' spring recess. In the long term some of the plans would allow more teachers from other countries to work in schools or change the enforcement of rules governing other school related jobs. More immediately efforts to crack down on undocumented immigrants promised to intensity rallies planned for April 10 across the country. Most students who had skipped school over the previous two weeks to protest an immigration bill passed by the U.S. House of Representatives were back in class this week. The students had rallied against the measure which would make it a crime to be in the country without legal sanction or to help illegal immigrants.

Zehr, Mary Ann (2007).  An Anchor in a Shifting Stream  Education Week, 27, 1. 

This article discusses the Federal Migrant Education Program as implemented in Chester County, Pennsylvania. The program is relatively small as federal programs go--its budget for the current fiscal year was $386.5 million. According to the No Child Left Behind Act, the term "migratory child" means a child who is, or whose parent or spouse is, a migratory agricultural worker, including a migratory dairy worker, or a migratory fisher, and who, in the preceding 36 months, in order to obtain, or accompany such parent or spouse, in order to obtain, temporary or seasonal employment in agricultural or fishing work--(1) has moved from one school district to another; (2) in a state that is comprised of a single school district, has moved from one administrative area to another within such district; or (3) resides in a school district of more than 15,000 square miles, and migrates a distance of 20 miles or more to a temporary residence to engage in a fishing activity. Complex eligibility rules for the federal program, such as what is considered agricultural work and what was a family's reason for making a move, have dominated national discussions about the program in recent years and are at the center of the debate on its reauthorization. Those who run the program in Chester County say the eligibility rules are hard to apply to the people they seek to serve: immigrants from Mexico who have little education, who do not speak English, and who are distrustful of questions. The educators have some ideas about how the law could be improved and they would like the reauthorization to make it easier to determine if families are eligible and to permit more families to participate.

Zelvys, Rimantas (2004).  Development of Education Policy in Lithuania during the Years of Transformations  International Journal of Educational Development, 24, 5. 

Development of education policy in Central and Eastern Europe is a specific type of educational transformations. Though almost all the countries in the region began their reforms from a similar starting point--the Soviet-type education system--eventually they moved towards different educational models. As a result of the full EU membership of the eight post-communist Central and Eastern European countries, one may recently observe a certain convergence of reform patterns, determined by the development of the common EU education policy. Lithuania is a typical example of educational transformations in the region. The article highlights the development of education policy in Lithuania from a highly inspirational and spontaneous transformations in early 1990s to more pragmatic and economically grounded reforms in late 1990s and early 2000s. Further integration into the EU evoke new systemic changes in Lithuanian education.

Zhang, Tiedao; Minxia, Zhao (2006).  Universalizing Nine-Year Compulsory Education for Poverty Reduction in Rural China  International Review of Education, 52, 3-4. 

Lack of access to basic education leads to diminished individual and national capabilities, therewith furthering cycles of poverty. An equitable education system meeting basic learning needs represents not only a human right, but also a means for reducing poverty, promoting productivity, and sustaining development. The Government of China--the most populous developing nation, the majority of whose citizens live in rural areas--has been committed to universalizing nine-year compulsory education among school-aged children and eliminating illiteracy among youths and adults aged 15-45. This study examines lessons learned from China's efforts in these areas. It also reports on current challenges and trends in a new national initiative for achieving high-quality universal basic education by the year 2007.

Zhang, Wanqing; Mueller, Keith J.; Chen, Li-Wu (2008).  Uninsured Hospitalizations: Rural and Urban Differences  Journal of Rural Health, 24, 2. 

Context: Few studies have examined hospitalization patterns among the uninsured, especially from the perspective of rural and urban differences. Purpose: To examine whether the patterns of uninsured hospitalizations differ in rural and urban hospitals and to identify the most prevalent and costly diagnoses among uninsured hospitalizations. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project's National Inpatient Sample representing a total of 37,804,021 hospital discharges, with 4.9% of them generated by uninsured persons in 2002. We compared demographic and clinical characteristics and the proportion of frequent and costly diagnoses by rural and urban hospitals. We used multiple logistic regression models to examine the relationship between preventable conditions and rural and urban hospitals among uninsured hospitalizations. Findings: Uninsured persons discharged from rural hospitals were more likely than their urban counterparts to be working-age adults (82% vs 79%) and to reside in a ZIP code area with a median household income of less than $35,000 per year (56% vs 26%). Rural uninsured hospitalizations were more likely to be for preventable conditions than were urban uninsured hospitalizations (P less than 0.001). The proportion of total hospital charges related to preventable hospitalizations was 15.5% in rural hospitals versus 10.0% in urban hospitals. Conclusions: The patterns of uninsured hospitalizations in rural and urban hospitals were different in many ways. Providing adequate access to primary care could result in potential savings related to preventable hospitalizations for the uninsured, especially for rural hospitals.

Zhang, Wanqing; Mueller, Keith J.; Chen, Li-Wu; Conway, Kevin (2006).  The Role of Rural Health Clinics in Hospitalization Due to Ambulatory Care Sensitive Conditions: A Study in Nebraska  Journal of Rural Health, 22, 3. 

Context: Hospitalization due to ambulatory care sensitive conditions (ACSCs) is often used as an indicator for measuring access to primary care. Rural health clinics (RHCs) provide basic primary care services for rural residents in health professional shortage areas (HPSAs). The relationship between RHCs and ACSCs is unclear. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the presence of RHCs in rural HPSAs and the likelihood of having an acute or chronic ACSC as the reason for hospitalization. Methods: Nebraska hospital discharge data (1999-2001) and the 2003 Area Resource File were used in this analysis. A multilevel logistic regression analysis was used to examine the relationship between the presence of RHCs in rural HPSAs and the likelihood of having an ACSC as the reason for hospitalization, after controlling for individual characteristics and county-level contextual factors stratified by 3 age groups. The eligibility for logistic regression was limited to patients from 28 rural Nebraska counties designated as HPSAs in 2001. Patients with commercial payers were excluded from the study. Findings: Elderly patients residing in rural Nebraska HPSAs with at least one RHC were significantly less likely to have a hospitalization due to chronic ACSCs. Conclusions: The presence of RHC is a significant factor associated with fewer hospitalizations for chronic ACSCs among the rural elderly residing in HPSAs.

Zhang, Yuping; Kao, Grace; Hannum, Emily (2007).  Do Mothers in Rural China Practice Gender Equality in Educational Aspirations for Their Children?  Comparative Education Review, 51, 2. 

In this article, the authors focus on a poor rural area in northwestern China and investigates whether the gender attitudes of mothers can be linked to their plans for educating their own children in the future. Using recent longitudinal data from the Gansu Survey of Children and Families (GSCF), a survey of rural 9-12-year-old children, families, and schools in Gansu province, the authors explore whether mothers' attitudes toward gender equality and old-age support, their expectations of future returns from children, mothers' perceptions of a child's promise for continuing schooling, and the child's actual school performance are linked with mothers' educational aspirations for the child, controlling for family characteristics. The authors' main findings suggest that mothers' attitudes about gender equality are closely tied to their educational aspirations for their children. Mothers' aspirations have a strong impact on their children's school persistence, controlling for other family characteristics.

Zhanlong, Ba (2007).  A Socioanthropological Analysis of the Function of Yugur-Nationality Schools  Chinese Education and Society, 40, 2. 

Education in schools that serve nationalities consisting of comparatively small populations is currently a focal topic in relation to academia and international organizations. The issue of cultural choice in the schools--whether the function of education in these schools is ultimately dissemination of modern mainstream culture or transmission of the nationality's own culture--is one of the most challenging and pragmatic issues facing the study of international diversification in education. In order to provide "Chinese experience" for the study of this international topic, and also to help solve some local practical problems, the author carried out a socioanthropological field study titled "Cultural Choice in Community Development and School Instruction." In this article, the author presents a relatively holistic, in-depth study of the function of education in the Yugur schools based on data from the field study and relevant secondary sources.

Zhao, Yijie; McNerney, Frank (2006).  Assessing the Impact of a Multi-Agency Project on Afghan Basic Education  [Online Submission, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Francisco, CA, Apr 7-11, 2006)] 

This study investigates the impact of activities done in the basic education sub-sector by a consortium of four non-government organizations in four provinces in Afghanistan from January 2004 to June 2005. The evaluation uses the project objectives and components as the evaluation framework, and data collected through survey questionnaires, structured interviews and classroom observations. Results indicate that the local communities were actively involved in basic education planning and management via village education committees; where new schools were built, almost all communities contributed labor and/or collected money to pay for the land; most teachers and principals claimed that attending the teacher training workshops enabled them to become more "professional" in teaching; there was a shared concern over the sustainability of the capacity building activities in project management, monitoring and impact assessment. Results show that the ABEC project has undertaken the initial work of building community support for a small number of schools in Afghanistan, and has made a contribution to the improvement of many lives especially in remote rural areas. Future aid projects should be more outcome rather than output oriented; an integrated rather than a federalist consortium could be more effective; teacher training should be upgraded and more systematic; and a mechanism for documentation and dissemination of information is needed for knowledge building and sharing. Appended are: (1) Process of Creating the Evaluation Tools; (2) Criteria for Data Collector Selection; and (3) Statistical Analysis of Change in Attitudes towards Girls over 12 Years Old Attending School. | [FULL TEXT]

Ziebarth, Ann (2006).  Housing Seasonal Workers for the Minnesota Processed Vegetable Industry  Rural Sociology, 71, 2. 

The place where we live and work is a reflection of a complex set of economic conditions and social relationships. Very little information is available regarding housing for Minnesota's migrant workers. It is estimated that approximately 20,000 people migrate to Minnesota each summer to work in the production and processing of green peas and sweet corn. Obtaining adequate, affordable short-term housing for these workers and dependents accompanying them is a challenge. Many migrants end up living in over-crowded, substandard conditions that place financial burdens on their limited incomes. Using secondary sources, including a survey of 282 migrant workers, government documents, and media reports, this study provides a review of migrant workers' housing in four Minnesota counties where vegetable production and processing occur. The findings are then examined using Mitchell's Labor Theory of Landscape providing a potential explanation of the context and meaning of these housing conditions.

Ziegler, Mary F.; Davis, Dent C. (2008).  Rural Adult Literacy in a Community Context: From the Margin to the Mainstream  New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2008, 117. 

Legislation over the past two decades has shaped the dominant view of adult literacy as addressing gaps in well-defined, measurable skills. As rural communities face unprecedented challenges, this one-size-fits-all view of adult literacy does not consider the unique local context of rural communities or involve those communities in defining their own needs and goals. This chapter describes a rural community in southern Appalachia and the work of a diverse group from all sectors of the community who developed a partnership to strengthen adult literacy as part of community development. The project extended over five years and involved strengthening participation in a community-wide partnership focused on basic skills as a part of community development. Although unique to the local context, lessons learned from this project may be valuable for adult educators who are working with rural communities to strengthen adult literacy. The authors begin by describing the county, its educational programs, and the development of the partnership. Next, they note the lessons learned, and address the potential applications of this story for other adult literacy efforts in rural areas.

Ziller, Erika C.; Coburn, Andrew F.; Anderson, Nathaniel J.; Loux, Stephenie L. (2008).  Uninsured Rural Families  Journal of Rural Health, 24, 1. 

Context: Although research shows higher uninsured rates among rural versus urban individuals, prior studies are limited because they do not examine coverage across entire rural families. Purpose: This study uses the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS) to compare rural and urban insurance coverage within families, to inform the design of coverage expansions that build on the current rural health insurance system. Methods: We pooled the 2001 and 2002 MEPS Household Component survey, aggregated to the family level (excluding households with all members 65 and older). We examined (1) differences in urban, rural-adjacent, and rural nonadjacent family insurance coverage, and (2) the characteristics of rural families related to their patterns of coverage. Findings: One out of 3 rural families has at least 1 uninsured member, a rate higher than for urban families--particularly in nonadjacent counties. Yet, three fourths of uninsured rural families have an insured member. For 42% of rural nonadjacent families, this is someone with public coverage (Medicaid/SCHIP or Medicare); urban families are more likely to have private health insurance or a private/public mix. Conclusions: Strategies to expand family coverage through employers may be less effective among rural nonadjacent than urban families. Instead, expansions of public coverage or tax credits enabling entire families to purchase an individual/self-employment plan would better ensure that rural nonadjacent families achieve full coverage. Subsidies or incentives would need to be generous enough to make coverage affordable for the 52% of uninsured rural nonadjacent families living below 200% of the federal poverty level.

Zinth, Kyle, Comp. (2006).  Science and Mathematics. ECS Highlights  [Education Commission of the States] 

The year 2005 saw a number of reports calling for actions to ensure the future economic vitality of the United States, frequently through the improvement of science and mathematics education. This trend will likely continue into 2006 as policymakers at the state and federal levels look for ways to ensure the United States remains economically competitive and secure in the emerging 21st century economy. The challenges cited are fairly consistent, commonly including: increased economic competition from other nations, particularly China and India; a dependence on foreign-born talent that may not be sustainable; a shortage of qualified mathematics/science teachers; a shortage of U.S. students studying for mathematics/science degrees. Groups issuing these reports represent a diverse cross-section of interests, including the business, higher education and policy worlds--and their intended audiences are similarly diverse. This document provides a brief summary of the major recommendations of six relevant reports. | [FULL TEXT]

Zografos, Christos (2007).  Rurality Discourses and the Role of the Social Enterprise in Regenerating Rural Scotland  Journal of Rural Studies, 23, 1. 

Social enterprises are businesses with primarily social objectives that reinvest their surplus in the community rather than seeking to maximise profit for shareholders. However, there is a debate regarding the drivers and the role of the social enterprise, the outcome of which is expected to have serious implications for the future of the institution [Brady, C., 2003. Social Enterprise development and the Role of the Social Economy in Scotland. CBS Network, Edinburgh]. A "reformist" view supports the position that social enterprises are simple extensions of existing economic systems, whereas a "radical" stance sees them as the embodiment of an alternative vision of running local economies. Development Trusts (DTs) are social enterprises that focus on community regeneration. Our research explored DT stakeholder views regarding the role of DTs in regenerating rural Scotland. Using Q methodology [Barry, J., Proops, J., 1999. Seeking sustainability discourses with Q methodology. Ecological Economics, 28, 337-345], we drew on "rurality" discourses [Frouws, J., 1998. The contested redefinition of the countryside. An analysis of rural discourses in The Netherlands. Sociologia Ruralis 38(1), 54-68] expressed by DT stakeholders in order to investigate how these discourses informed their views. Radical positions were mostly associated with a hedonist rurality discourse and were split into three sub-discourses, whereas reformist positions mostly reflected a utilitarian rurality discourse. There was consensus between discourses in rejecting a primary DT contribution to rural regeneration by substituting state and local authority functions in rural Scotland. Results suggest that stakeholders prefer that DTs develop their own agendas and activity rather than try to substitute unsuccessful state or local authority provision of rural services. Social enterprise strategies and support policies promoting a service-providing role for DTs in rural Scotland should consider this issue if they are to avoid stakeholder objection and contribute to the success of DTs in becoming active vehicles of rural regeneration.

Zollinger, Brett; Krannich, Richard S. (2002).  Factors Influencing Farmers' Expectations to Sell Agricultural Land for Non-Agricultural Uses  Rural Sociology, 67, 3. 

In this study we identify factors that influence farmers' expectations to sell some or all of their farming operation in areas where the increase in the conversion of agricultural land has been relatively rapid. Findings indicate that the following factors increase farmers' propensity to sell some or all of the agricultural operation for non-agricultural land use: perceived negative change (particularly difficulty in obtaining and retaining rental land and in purchasing land) increases the likelihood that farmers will expect the operation to become nonviable, which in turn increases the expectation to sell some or all agricultural land; lack of a child who will take over the operation; and declining profits from the operation. Factors that apparently exert little influence on the expectation to sell some or all of the farming operation include level of intrinsic rewards that a farmer experiences from his farming operation, the farmer's satisfaction with his community, and the farmer's closeness to retirement age.

Zuo, Jiping (2004).  Feminization of Agriculture, Relational Exchange, and Perceived Fairness in China: A Case in Guangxi Province  Rural Sociology, 69, 4. 

This study examines the inconsistency between the unequal allocation of family labor and a lack of perceived unfairness among spouses of male-outmigrant couples in rural Guangxi, China. It explores relational (versus transactional) exchange processes conditioned by husband-wife mutual dependence. Using both qualitative and quantitative data collected in three villages, this study finds that among male-outmigrant couples the gendered division of labor "men work and women plough" serves as a collective strategy to cope with poverty. Consequently, instead of engaging in direct exchange using privatized resources, marriage partners indirectly reciprocate each other through culturally prescribed family roles. Relational exchange emphasizes the equality of obligations and nonmarket strategies, which are likely to strengthen relational harmony by enhancing marriage partners' appreciative feelings of each other's contributions to the well-being of the family, thus promoting perceived fairness despite the uneven allocation of family tasks.