Rural Education | W

Waggoner, Charles (2005).  A Hybrid Way of Learning: Taught at Home and Taught at School  Rural Educator, 26, 3. 

There can be a natural conflict between home schoolers and the school district's attempt to restrict their freedom. Home schooling is an age-old educational method that was primarily utilized by parents seeking to teach their own children at home in order to restore traditional values and bring what they perceived to be an order to the family. Presently, a few parents for reasons unique to themselves are now requesting home schooling for other than religious instruction. This type of parental request may place administrators and school boards under rigorous community and faculty scrutiny. Blueville High School is completely fictitious as are the names referenced. The events did occur. | [FULL TEXT]

Wahyudi; Treagust, David F. (2004).  An Investigation of Science Teaching Practices in Indonesian Rural Secondary Schools  Research in Science Education, 34, 4. 

This study reports on teaching practices in science classrooms of Indonesian lower secondary schools in rural areas. Using six schools from three districts in the province of Kalimantan Selatan as the sample, this study found that most teaching practices in science classrooms in rural schools were teacher-centred with students copying notes. However, the study also found unique teaching practices of an exemplary science teacher whose teaching style can be described as both student-centred and teacher-centred, with students encouraged to be active learners. Four features of exemplary teaching practices were identified: The teacher managed the classroom effectively; used a variety of questioning techniques; employed various teaching approaches instead of traditional methods; and created a favourable learning environment. Data from classroom observations, interviews with teachers, and students' responses to a questionnaire were used to compare the exemplary teacher and his colleagues. This study identified internal factors that may affect teaching practices such as a teacher's content knowledge and beliefs about teaching. Compared to the other teachers, the exemplary teacher possessed more content knowledge and had a relatively stronger belief in his ability to teach.

Waitt, Alden (2006).  "A Good Story Takes Awhile": Appalachian Literature in the High School Classroom  Journal of Appalachian Studies, 12, 1. 

Today's teachers bemoan the fact that their students, immersed in a media culture, appear to be uninterested in reading works typically assigned in traditional language arts classrooms. However, the incorporation of young adult novels has served to engage even reluctant learners with their young adult protagonists dealing with familiar themes and settings. Yet what about marginalized students, those from rural areas in Appalachia? This paper explores the rationale for using Appalachian authors and/or novels (young adult, "classic," and popular) with Appalachian characters and themes, alongside language arts classics, to expose Appalachian youth, particularly those students from rural areas, to literature which reflects their culture and concerns. The works I suggest using are listed in three groupings: conformity and rebellion, class conflict, and multiculturalism and include Sharyn McCrumb, Barbara Kingsolver, Chris Holbrook, and Fred Chappell. The paper includes an appendix with other suggestions for Appalachian work to be used in units typically presented in high school language arts courses.

Wakefield, Douglas S.; Ward, Marcia; Miller, Thomas; Ohsfeldt, Robert; Jaana, Mirou; Lei, Yang; Tracy, Roger; Schneider, John (2004).  Intensive Care Unit Utilization and Interhospital Transfers As Potential Indicators of Rural Hospital Quality  Journal of Rural Health, 20, 4. 

Obtaining meaningful information from statistically valid and reliable measures of the quality of care for disease-specific care provided in small rural hospitals is limited by small numbers of cases and different definitive care capacities. An alternative approach may be to aggregate and analyze patient services that reflect more generalized care processes. Purpose: To evaluate the applicability of intensive care unit (ICU) utilization and interhospital transfers as potential indicators of quality in rural hospitals. Methods: Secondary data analysis of ICU utilization and interhospital transfer practices in Iowa?s Critical Access (CAH), rural, rural referral, and urban hospitals. Findings: Rural hospitals have fewer resources, provide a more limited range of definitive care services, and rely to a greater extent on transferring patients to other hospitals capable of providing the required definitive care. Examining ICU utilization and interhospital transfer patterns we found (1) that lower percentages of patients receive ICU care in smaller facilities; (2) higher transfer rates for both ICU and non-ICU patients in CAH hospitals; (3) shorter average lengths of stay for ICU patients from smaller hospitals who were transferred; and (4) lower mortality rates for CAH and rural hospital ICU patients. Conclusions: Examining ICU utilization and interhospital transfer patterns offers potential insights into rural hospital quality measurement and comparisons.

Walford, Nigel (2007).  Geographical and Geodemographic Connections between Different Types of Small Area as the Origins and Destinations of Migrants to Mid-Wales  Journal of Rural Studies, 23, 3. 

Exchanges of population between supposedly "urban" and "rural" spaces have occurred throughout history as people migrate between areas with relatively, densely and sparsely settled populations. However, comparatively little is known about whether the same small areas persistently contribute to the flow and what types of locality are involved. Recent counterurbanising migration represents both a re-location of the centres of population growth from urban to rural areas in many developed countries, and a refashioning of the characteristics and lifestyles of residents occupying the countryside. Mid-Wales classically exemplifies the changing demographic fortune of many rural areas having experienced a long period of population decline, followed by a general but locally fluctuating upturn since the 1970s. Using empirical information from recent British censuses on numbers of 1-year migrants and from a national geodemographic classification of small areas, this paper explores the geographical and socio-economic connections between the origins and destinations of those people who moved into Mid-Wales during the closing decades of the 20th century. It concludes that certain places and types of locality have stronger migratory links enduring beyond the period covered by a single census enumeration.

Walker, Kathrin C.; Larson, Reed W (2006).  Dilemmas of Youth Work: Balancing the Professional and Personal  New Directions for Youth Development, 2006, 112. 

In this study, the authors tried to understand the types of dilemmas that adult leaders of youth programs encounter in their daily work with young people. The dilemmas come from an in-depth longitudinal study of ongoing experiences in twelve high-quality urban and rural programs for high school-aged youth. Transcripts from 125 interviews with the adult program leaders, 788 interviews with youth, and 167 site observations by the authors' staff were used to identify specific challenging situations that these leaders encountered. The authors' analysis of these dilemmas indicated that a sizable number involved a primary tension between the demands of relating to youth in a professional versus a personal way.

Wall, Dennis; Masayesva, Virgil (2004).  People of the Corn: Teachings in Hopi Traditional Agriculture, Spirituality, and Sustainability  American Indian Quarterly, 28, 3-4. 

This article describes aspects of a unique relationship between an ancient agricultural practice and the culture that it sustains. Hopi agriculture, known as "dry farming" because it relies strictly on precipitation and runoff water (along with hard work and prayer), has kept the Hopi culture intact for nearly a thousand years. But aside from the sustenance it provides the people of the high desert of northern Arizona, corn enters into nearly every aspect of traditional Hopi life, contributing to values development, the sharing and passing on of tradition, and the celebration and connection with the Great Mystery. The authors of this article are members of the staff of the Institute for Tribal Environmental Professionals (ITEP), a tribal training and support organization based at Northern Arizona University in Flagstaff. ITEP's work involves helping tribes to build capacity in their environmental management programs. The institute's work centers on air quality management training but also addresses other media, including drinking water, wastewater, and solid waste, as well as challenges that tribes face with environmental toxins such as nuclear waste and heavy-metal deposition. Virgil Masayesva, director of ITEP is a member of the Hopi Tribe and was raised in the village of Hotevilla on Third Mesa on his family's farm (mentioned below), located in a valley that his family calls "Hopaq". Dennis Wall, an Arizona native, is an author, longtime freelance writer photographer, and ITEP's editor.

Wallace, Ian (2007).  A Framework for Revitalisation of Rural Education and Training Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa: Strengthening the Human Resource Base for Food Security and Sustainable Livelihoods  International Journal of Educational Development, 27, 5. 

Recent studies of the current state of rural education and training (RET) systems in sub-Saharan Africa have assessed their ability to provide for the learning needs essential for more knowledgeable and productive small-scale rural households. These are most necessary if the endemic causes of rural poverty (poor nutrition, lack of sustainable livelihoods, etc.) are to be overcome. A brief historical background and analysis of the major current constraints to improvement in the sector are discussed. Paramount among those factors leading to its present "malaise" is the lack of a whole-systems perspective and the absence of any coherent policy framework in most countries. There is evidence of some recent innovations, both in the public sector and through the work of non-governmental organisations (NGOs), civil society organisations (CSOs) and other private bodies. These provide hope of a new sense of direction that could lead towards meaningful "revitalisation" of the sector. A suggested framework offers 10 key steps which, it is argued, could largely be achieved with modest internal resources and very little external support, provided that the necessary leadership and managerial capacities are in place.

Wallin, Dawn C. (2001).  The Impact of the Rural Context upon the Career Patterns of Female Administrators. 

A study examined the impact of the rural context upon the career patterns of women educational administrators in rural public school divisions in Saskatchewan, Canada. Surveys were completed by 107 female administrators who served rural schools in Saskatchewan, and 24 female administrators were interviewed. Findings indicate that women administrators in depressed communities tended to be younger than in booming and stable communities. Female representation in educational administration was strongest at the school level. The attractions for female administrators were higher but the opportunities were lower in booming communities than in stable or depressed communities. Female administrators from booming communities did not feel the pressure to live in the community as highly as female administrators in depressed and stable communities. The attitude that "it has always been done this way" affected school accomplishments more in depressed and stable communities than in booming communities. Women in booming communities faced more career barriers than women in stable or depressed communities, but for the majority of respondents, gender was no longer perceived as a significant barrier to administration. The majority of women administrators in rural Saskatchewan were finding success. Regularities in the career patterns of rural female administrators were related to the nature of the communities of which they were a part. The personal views of female administrators matched the perceived views of their particular community. Implications for theory, practice, and research are discussed. Six appendices present demographics, survey results, and maps. | [FULL TEXT]

Wallin, Dawn C. (2005).  Through the Looking Glass: A Comparative Analysis of the Career Patterns of Rural Female Administrators in Saskatchewan and Texas  Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 51, 2. 

This article stems from research that examined the effect of the rural context on the career patterns of female administrators in rural public school divisions in the province of Saskatchewan, Canada, and in the state of Texas, United States. These two studies examined (a) the nature of rural communities and its relationship to women's career paths in educational administration, and (b) barriers and supports faced by female administrators. The purpose of this article is to outline the findings of the study in relation to emergent issues for administration by women in rural areas.

Wallington, Tabatha J.; Lawrence, Geoffrey (2008).  Making Democracy Matter: Responsibility and Effective Environmental Governance in Regional Australia  Journal of Rural Studies, 24, 3. 

This paper will critically examine the changing social relations of responsibility associated with Australia's current regional "experiment" in environmental governance. This experiment centrally involves the transfer of responsibility for natural resource management (NRM) from Federal and State governments to community-based regional bodies. Although governments are promoting democratic NRM planning at the regional level as a more effective means of addressing Australia's environmental problems, we argue that a tension is emerging in association with the simultaneous pursuit of these goals: "effectiveness" has been defined in terms of the accountability of regional communities to central governments for the achievement of short-term results, an approach which is undermining the democratic promise that regional bodies would be responsive to wider community concerns. The notion of "responsibility" provides a means of investigating this tension, as accountability and responsiveness are both elements of the overarching concept of responsibility. The examination of NRM institutions through this theoretical lens indicates that the shared substantive interests required to motivate a sense of shared responsibility amongst regional actors have been sidelined by the procedural demands of accountability. We argue that, if NRM planning is to be genuinely accountable and responsive to substantive public ends, the properly social and dialogical nature of responsibility relationships must be recovered. The paper concludes with a discussion of the social and political relations of responsibility that appear to provide the best opportunities for effective environmental governance, and thus for the achievement of more sustainable NRM outcomes, at the regional level.

Walsh, Mark (2005).  Living History  Education Week, 24, 34. 

John Tinker and Mary Beth Tinker are back in a classroom in their hometown, once again wearing black armbands and drawing attention to a war. Now in their 50s, the siblings are living symbols of constitutional rights for secondary school students. In 1965, they and a handful of others were suspended for wearing black armbands to their public schools to protest the Vietnam War. The Tinkers and another student, Christopher Eckhardt, took their case all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court, where in 1969 they won the landmark ruling in "Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District" that wearing such an armband in school was symbolic speech protected by the First Amendment as long as school was not substantially disrupted. Today, nearly 40 years after the armband controversy unfolded, the Tinkers tend carefully to their legacy as advocates for student expression. They often crisscross the country to speak at schools.

Wanich, Wipada (2006).  Place-Based Education in the United States and Thailand: With Implications for Mathematics Education. Working Paper No. 33  [Appalachian Collaborative Center for Learning, Assessment, and Instruction in Mathematics (ACCLAIM)] 

Although there are many concepts and ideas proposed to reform mathematics education, especially in rural areas, the experience of actual reform embeds many ironies. In the United States, some researchers and educators try to change the role of mathematics in rural context. From a Thai outlook, however, the difficulty is that this role is not going to change if the U.S. continues (as seems likely) to place great emphasis on student achievement. In the United States, great effort is being devoted to improvement in mathematics achievement, operationalized as "raising test scores." The U.S. government also supports many national evaluation and assessment programs that report students' achievement comparing the United States and international countries such as the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) or the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). In other words, learning and teaching styles might be changed, but the goals remain the same. This paper focuses on the role of place-based education in mathematics reform. The aim of place-based education is to enhance students' achievements in order to improve a community's quality. | [FULL TEXT]

Wankhede, G.G.; Sengupta, A. (2005).  Village Education Committees in West Bengal, India: Planned Vision and beyond  International Journal of Educational Development, 25, 5. 

This paper deals with decentralization of educational administration in West Bengal, India. It gives specific emphasis on studying education committees formed with the community members at village level for looking after the management of primary schools in the concerned localities. For the purpose of this study primary data have been collected from four village education committees. The data provides information on the formation, structure and functioning of village education committees. The findings contradict the ideology on the basis of which these committees are formed. The paper ends with an attempt to explore certain future paths of action.

Ward, James G. (2003).  Demographics and the Rural Ethos.  Journal of Education Finance, 29, 2. 

Describes the meaning of "rural" and identifies 31 states having a significant rural character. Discusses certain generalizations about rural America. Provides a demographic analysis with school finance implications. Draws implications for rural school finance policy.

Warner, Keith Douglass (2007).  The Quality of Sustainability: Agroecological Partnerships and the Geographic Branding of California Winegrapes  Journal of Rural Studies, 23, 2. 

Quality and sustainability are both socially constructed, ambiguous terms, but they have not been heretofore linked in the rural studies literature. The "quality turn" has received particular attention from researchers for its potential to organize linkages among various forces in agrofood systems, providing more income to producers by appealing to affluent, reflexive consumers. A distinct line of rural research has attended to the challenge of agro-environmental pollution and regulation, but this research trajectory has been subsumed under the broader paradigm of sustainability. This article seeks to contribute to discussions about quality in the agrofood sector by analyzing the potential of fusing rural resource protection practices with place-based marketing of enhanced quality, drawing from an empirical study of the California winegrape industry. In several California commodities, agroecological partnerships are becoming the chief vehicle for extending sustainable agricultural practices. California's winegrape farmers have undertaken more partnerships to greater effect than those of any other US crop, and they are now discursively linking their sustainable farming practices, environmental quality, and wine quality. This marks a new linkage of two heretofore discrete social imaginaries. This article argues that "quality" is a term that can conceptually link increasing consumer demand for differentiated product taste with increasing regulatory pressure for environmental protection. Synergistic benefits from such a linkage have the potential to strengthen rural development initiatives. Making progress toward sustainability requires collective action on the part of producers, and in some commodities, may mesh well with efforts to enhance foodstuff quality.

Warnock, Tania (2004).  Career and Technical Education Works for Rural Communities  Techniques: Connecting Education and Careers, 79, 8. 

In Oklahoma, the state's CareerTech system is helping to provide resources and expertise to preserve the quality of life in rural communities. Just as many metropolitan areas feel the choke of urban sprawl, rural Oklahoma has, to a great extent, become the carbon copy of small towns across this country that are losing jobs, people and wealth. Fortunately, due to Oklahoma's CareerTech system, most of these rural communities have access to an incredibly valuable resource that can provide many of the tools needed to forestall continued economic decline and even reinvigorate America's heartland. Autry Tech, located in Enid, Oklahoma, serves as a technical institute for rural communities in the state. Don Roberts and Daren Slater, business and industry services coordinators at Autry, initiated the Rural Leadership Garfield County (RLGC) program that identifies various leaders in the rural communities that Autry serves and acquaints them with opportunities that are available to help improve the social and economic conditions in their area. This document shares personal accounts of people who have participated in this program.

Warren, Claudia; Hamlin, Kay (2005).  Rural Outreach and Early Childhood Professional Development  Childhood Education, 82, 2. 

In an attempt to meet the growing professional development needs of early childhood practitioners in North Carolina, Winston-Salem State University (WSSU) is reaching out to the rural areas of North Carolina by offering programs that will certify North Carolina teachers in birth through kindergarten education (BKE). In this article, the author discusses the mission of the BKE program at WSSU which is the preparation of knowledgeable, ethical, critical, and creative teachers who facilitate learning for all students in a diverse society. The ultimate goal of this program is to make the world a better place for ALL children. Meeting the needs of early childhood professional development with outreach to the rural areas will help to meet these goals.

Warren, John Robert; Jenkins, Krista N.; Kulick, Rachael B. (2006).  High School Exit Examinations and State-Level Completion and GED Rates, 1975 through 2002  Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 28, 2. 

This article investigates the extent to which state-mandated high school exit examinations are associated with state-level public high school completion rates in the United States. The authors estimate a series of state and year fixed effects models using a new measure of state-level public high school completion rates and archival information about states' policies on high school exit examinations from 1975 through 2002. The study finds that state high school exit examinations--particularly the "more difficult" examinations that have been implemented recently in some states--are associated with lower public high school completion rates and higher rates of General Educational Development test taking. Furthermore, the study finds that the association between state policies on high school exit examinations and public high school completion grows stronger as states become more racially and ethnically diverse and as poverty rates increase.

Warren, Louis L.; Peel, Henry A. (2005).  Collaborative Model for School Reform through a Rural School/University Partnership  Education, 126, 2. 

This paper describes a study of a collaborative initiative between a rural high school and a university. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of collaboration in a rural school reform partnership. What grew out of this study was a collaborative model of a partnership. While partnerships are not unique, there is a unique nature of how universities successfully partner with rural schools. Educators in rural schools, as well as university faculty members who serve rural schools, may fine the description of the partnership instructive as they embark on similar ventures. Addressed in this paper are the unique characteristics of rural school and the fundamental principles of rural school/university partnerships.

Waters, Michael S., Ed. (2005).  A Mathematics Educator's Introduction to Rural Policy Issues  [Appalachian Collaborative Center for Learning, Assessment, and Instruction in Mathematics (ACCLAIM), Ohio University] 

Most of the scholarship and commentary on mathematics education deals with issues of curriculum and instruction; this is understandable in a field logically belonging to the domain of curriculum and instruction. Moreover, issues of teaching and learning are compelling to people who love to learn and teach mathematics. Policy receives shorter shrift in mathematics education, but it is by no means ignored. This document contains the following essays specifically dedicated to summarizing rural policy issues: (1) An Introduction to Rural Policy Issues from the Perspective of Mathematics Education (Mike Waters and Craig Howley); (2) Connecting Rural School Curriculum to the Future Civic and Economic Well-Being of Rural Students (Paul Theobald); (3) What Is Rural, Revisited (Mary Jean Herzog); (4) Making a Fit: Rural Educators' Needs and Quality Professional Development (Jean Haar); (5) Multicultural Education for Rural Schools: Policies and Practices; (Kristine Reed); (6) The Importance of Schools to Rural Community Viability (Tom Lyson); (7) Accountability Implications of School and District Size Research (Craig Howley); (8) Rural School Bus Rides (Aimee Howley); and (9) Implementing Accountability Reforms: Challenges and Victories in Rural School (Nancy Jennings). (Individual papers contain references.) | [FULL TEXT]

Waters, Michael; Howley, Craig; Schultz, James (2004).  An Initial Research Agenda for Rural Mathematics Education. Working Paper No. 16 (Revised)  [Appalachian Collaborative Center for Learning, Assessment, and Instruction in Mathematics (ACCLAIM)] 

Responding to the need for research in rural mathematics education, three investigators develop an initial research agenda in this area. Because this development is perhaps unique, the investigators envision the utility of this initial agenda in terms of both product and process. Drawing from 190 questions from multiple sources in mathematics, mathematics education, and rural education, the authors develop 12 questions and 48 illustrative subquestions as an initial agenda. The questions are developed both to indicate relevancy as research and to indicate dispersion among possible variations of specific questions. Four recommendations are made about the process of developing these questions involving cross-disciplinary collaboration, technical processes, and applications. This manuscript is an outgrowth of the current work by the research initiative of the Appalachian Collaborative Center for Learning, Assessment, and Instruction in Mathematics (ACCLAIM).  Appended are: (1) Original 190 Questions with Relevance and Approachability Rankings by each, Researcher (R); and (2) Top 25 Questions sorted by Average Standardized Relevance. | [FULL TEXT]

Waxman, Sandra; Medin, Douglas (2007).  Experience and Cultural Models Matter: Placing Firm Limits on Childhood Anthropocentrism  Human Development, 50, 1. 

This paper builds on Hatano and Inagaki's pioneering work on the role of experience and cultural models in children's biological reasoning. We use a category-based induction task to consider how experience and cultural models shape rural and urban children's patterns of biological reasoning. We discuss the implications of these findings for developmental theory and educational practice.

Weagel, Deborah (2007).  Elucidating Abstract Concepts and Complexity in Louise Erdrich's "Love Medicine" through Metaphors of Quilts and Quilt Making  American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 31, 4. 

Quilts have become a part of American Indian culture, and they are mentioned and even highlighted in certain works of contemporary Native American literature. Certain questions can be posed in regard to the inclusion of quilt references in contemporary American Indian novels. Do the quilts and the making of quilts have some type of metaphorical function in the texts? Is it possible for more complex concepts to be articulated and understood better through a tangible, concrete household item such as a quilt? How might a patchwork textile such as a quilt, which is essentially a non-Native art enthusiastically embraced by Native peoples, function as a mediator between white and indigenous cultures? Can the concept of a quilt help the reader better understand the novel's structure? In this article, the author addresses such questions by focusing on the novel "Love Medicine" [Louise Erdrich, New York: HarperPerennial, 1993], and demonstrates that the quilts in the narrative can be incorporated into metaphors that help elucidate more abstract ideas, such as wholeness. She also shows how the notion of a patchwork quilt, with its often-disparate parts, can illuminate the concept of a mixed blood and further clarify the novel's structure and complexity. She begins the article by presenting a brief history of quilt making among Native peoples in North America.

Weber, Bruce; Jensen, Leif; Miller, Kathleen; Mosley, Jane; Fisher, Monica (2005).  A Critical Review of Rural Poverty Literature: Is There Truly a Rural Effect? Institute for Research on Poverty Discussion Paper No. 1309-05 

Poverty rates are highest in the most urban and most rural areas of the United States, and are higher in nonmetropolitan than metropolitan areas. Yet, perhaps because only one-fifth of the nation's 35 million poor people live in nonmetropolitan areas, rural poverty has received less attention than urban poverty from both policymakers and researchers. We provide a critical review of literature that examines the factors affecting poverty in rural areas. We focus on studies that explore whether there is a rural effect, i.e., whether there is something about rural places above and beyond demographic characteristics and local economic context that makes poverty more likely in those places. We identify methodological concerns (such as endogenous membership and omitted variables) that may limit the validity of conclusions from existing studies that there is a rural effect. We conclude with suggestions for research that would address these concerns and explore the processes and institutions in urban and rural areas that determine poverty, outcomes, and policy impacts.  [Support for the preparation of this article was provided by the RUPRI Rural Poverty Research Center, with core funding from the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; by the Pennsylvania State University Agricultural Experiment Station Project 3501; by the Population Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, which has core support from the National Institute on Child Health and Human Development (1 R24 HD1025); and by Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station Project 817.]

Weeks, William B.; Lushkov, Gili; Nelson, William A.; Wallace, Amy E. (2006).  Characteristics of Rural and Urban Cadaveric Organ Transplant Donors and Recipients  Journal of Rural Health, 22, 3. 

Context: Health disparities have been found when comparing rural and urban populations. Purpose: To compare characteristics of rural and urban cadaveric transplant donors and recipients. Methods: We used deidentified individual-level data on 55,929 cadaveric transplant donor-recipient exchanges between 2000 and 2003 and examined the relative rates of donating and receiving cadaveric transplants for rural compared to urban residents, as defined by ZIP Codes. Findings: When compared to their urban counterparts, rural organ donors were more likely to have died from head trauma, drowning, motor vehicle accidents, or suicide and less likely to have died from cerebrovascular events, cardiac events, or homicide ("P" less than 0.001 for all). Rural transplant recipients had lower levels of educational attainment and were less likely to have had the transplant financed by private insurance ("P" less than 0.001 for all). While we found no statistical difference in days wait to organ transplantation, rural residents were more likely to donate than to receive cadaveric organs ("P" less than 0.001). Conclusions: The differences in organ donation that we found warrant further exploration.

Weiler, Kathleen (2005).  Mabel Carney at Teachers College: From Home Missionary to White Ally  Teachers College Record, 107, 12. 

This article discusses the career of Mabel Carney, head of the Department of Rural Education at Teachers College from 1918 to 1941. Carney was deeply involved with African American and African education, traveling to Africa and the American South, teaching courses on "Negro education", and working closely with both African and African American graduate students. When she retired from Teachers College in 1942, she was given an honorary doctorate from Howard University for her support of African American education. She died in 1968. Carney is barely mentioned in educational histories of the period. Her life and contributions to African American struggles for higher education reveal a little-known history. But her story also illuminates the instability of conceptions of race, the uneasy positioning of white women reformers, and the ways that progressive white educators' understandings of race changed in the interwar years in response to broader political events and social movements.

Weisz, John R.; Jensen-Doss, Amanda; Hawley, Kristin M. (2006).  Evidence-Based Youth Psychotherapies Versus Usual Clinical Care: A Meta-Analysis of Direct Comparisons  American Psychologist, 61, 7. 

In the debate over evidence-based treatments (EBTs) for youth, one question is central: Do EBTs produce better outcomes than the usual interventions employed in clinical care? The authors addressed this question through a meta-analysis of 32 randomized trials that directly compared EBTs with usual care. EBTs outperformed usual care. Effects fell within the small to medium range at posttreatment, increasing somewhat at follow-up. EBT superiority was not reduced by high levels of youth severity or by inclusion of minority youths. The findings underscore a need for improved study designs and detailed treatment descriptions. In the future, the EBT versus usual care genre can inform the search for the most effective interventions and guide treatment selection in clinical care.

Wenger, G. Clare; Burholt, Vanessa (2004).  "Changes in Levels of Social Isolation and Loneliness among Older People in a Rural Area: A Twenty-Year Longitudinal Study"  Canadian Journal on Aging, 23, 2. 

The Bangor Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA), conducted in rural Wales from 1979 to 1999, followed a cohort of survivors from more than 500 people over 20 years. Using both quantitative and qualitative data from the study, the factors associated with increases and decreases in loneliness and social isolation were identified. The study was based on a population sample and survivors were followed up every 4 years. From 1983 to 1987, 30 people aged 75 and over in 1979 were studied intensively. The customary measure of loneliness was used, as well as an aggregate measure devised by the research team. Social isolation was similarly measured, using an aggregate measure. Respondents were assessed as demonstrating low, moderate, or high levels of loneliness or isolation. Subsequently, statistical models of loneliness and social isolation were developed. Some respondents were assessed as not experiencing social isolation or loneliness during the study. Others showed changes in levels. In this article, the data are explored, seeking factors associated with changes in social isolation and loneliness. Outcome measures of these two variables of interest are compared with items from the aggregate measures and other identifiable intervening variables. The article discusses which change variables contribute most to levels of isolation and loneliness and result in different combinations of these two outcomes. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.

Wenger, Kerri J.; Dinsmore, Jan (2005).  Preparing Rural Preservice Teachers for Diversity  Journal of Research in Rural Education, 20, 10. 

This 2-year evaluative self-study of a cohort teacher preparation program in rural eastern Oregon explored preservice teachers' perceptions of their preparedness to teach diverse students. Using qualitative methods, teacher educators examined preservice teachers' assumptions about student diversity in rural schools where they planned to teach. Characteristics of experiences that preservice teachers found helpful and unhelpful in their preparation to teach linguistically and culturally diverse students are described. Data suggested that the cohort model used for teacher preparation program delivery was important in supporting inquiry that sensitized rural preservice teachers to diverse learners' funds of knowledge. (Includes 2 appendices: Culturally Responsive Practices Exhibited by Student Teachers: Observation Sheet; and CCE Assignment Description.)

Westfall, John M.; Fernald, Douglas H.; Staton, Elizabeth W.; VanVorst, Rebecca; West, David; Pace, Wilson D. (2004).  Applied Strategies for Improving Patient Safety: A Comprehensive Process To Improve Care in Rural and Frontier Communities  Journal of Rural Health, 20, 4. 

Medical errors and patient safety have gained increasing attention throughout all areas of medical care. Understanding patient safety in rural settings is crucial for improving care in rural communities. To describe a system to decrease medical errors and improve care in rural and frontier primary care offices. Applied Strategies for Improving Patient Safety (ASIPS) was a demonstration project designed to collect and analyze medical error reports and use these reports to develop and implement interventions aimed at decreasing errors. ASIPS participants were clinicians and staff in 2 practice-based research networks: the Colorado Research Network (CaReNet) and the High Plains Research Network (HPRN). This paper describes ASIPS in HPRN. Fourteen HPRN practices with a total of 150 clinicians and staff have participated in ASIPS. Participants have submitted 128 reports. Diagnostic tests were involved in 26% of events; medication errors appeared in 20% of events. Communication errors were reported in 72%. Two learning groups developed "Principles for Process Improvement" for medication errors and diagnostic testing errors. Several safety "alerts" were issued to improve care, and 2 interventions were implemented to decrease errors. A safe and secure reporting system that relies on voluntary reporting from clinicians and staff can be successfully implemented in rural primary care settings. Information from reports can be used to identify processes that can be improved.

Westmoreland, Helen; Little, Priscilla M. D. (2006).  Exploring Quality Standards for Middle School After School Programs: What We Know and What We Need to Know. A Summit Report  [Harvard Family Research Project, Harvard University] 

A growing body of evidence confirms what makes sense intuitively--quality matters for participation in after school programs. Nationwide, a chief concern among after school stakeholders is programming for middle schoolers--too "old" to be told what to do after school and too "young" to be left home alone. A national dialogue about the state of quality standards for programs that serve youth in the middle grades after school has already begun. At two national forums, researchers and practitioners have raised issues about the relevance of existing standards for middle school. In response to this concern, the Nellie Mae Education Foundation (NMEF) approached the Harvard Family Research Project (HFRP) and the National Institute for Out-of-School Time (NIOST) to cohost a working summit with its regional grantees to further explore current quality standards and move the dialogue forward concerning the unique programming needs of middle school students. On December 9, 2005, the one-day summit honed in on the unique aspects of middle school after school programming and explored how quality assessment tools can support program development and implementation for that age group. This report describes the structure and process of that summit, and presents results of the Harvard Family Research Project (HFRP) quality standards and assessment scan, key standards for middle school youth, and emerging themes about middle school programming. How program quality standards can be used to improve middle school programming is also discussed.

Wettersten, Kara Brita; Guilmino, Adam; Herrick, Christen G.; Hunter, Patricia J.; Kim, Grace Y.; Jagow, Desiree; Beecher, Timothy; Faul, Kiri; Baker, Allison A.; Radolph, Susan E.; Ellenbecker, Kendra; McCormick, Jana (2005).  Predicting Educational and Vocational Attitudes among Rural High School Students  Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 4. 

Given the paucity of literature addressing the experiences of rural youth, this study investigated the ability of assessed levels of social support, perceived parental involvement, academic self-efficacy, and perceived educational barriers to predict school engagement and work role attitudes among rural high school students. The authors specifically intended to test the generalizability of M. E. Kenny, D. L. Blustein, A. Chaves, J. M. Grossman, and L. A. Gallagher's (2003) findings with a rural population and within a social cognitive career theory (R. W. Lent, S. D. Brown, & G. Hackett, 2002) framework. Results supported the hypothesized importance of contextual factors (social support and parent involvement) and self-efficacy in predicting the work and school attitudes of rural students.

Wexler, Lisa M. (2006).  Learning Resistance: Inupiat and the US Bureau of Education, 1885-1906--Deconstructing Assimilation Strategies and Implications for Today  Journal of American Indian Education, 45, 1. 

Native students must be taught to deconstruct their history of assimilation in order to understand their current struggles and to strengthen their cultural identity. As an example of this, the paper considers how community education was justified, carried out and implicated in Inupiat assimilation practices during the first 20 years that the U.S. Bureau of Education was in control of Alaska Natives' education. Government documents, reports, and personal letters from missionary educators and government officials will be examined to identify the rationale that supported vocational and schooling efforts and drove educational practices. The analysis will begin to explain how education worked as an assimilation strategy that contributed to the devastating changes the Inupiat experienced between the years 1885 and 1906. This perspective has ramifications for schools serving Native communities. This paper concludes by highlighting the ways in which these forms of colonization persist in educational settings. The historical and present day subjugation should be made visible to help today's Native youth reclaim their cultural heritage and gain strength from the process.

Wheat, John R.; Higginbotham, John C.; Yu, Jing; Leeper, James D. (2005).  Physicians for Rural America: The Role of Institutional Commitment within Academic Medical Centers  Journal of Rural Health, 21, 3. 

Context: Prior study suggests that contextual characteristics of medical schools (e.g., state demographics, public vs private, NIH research effort) predict output of rural physicians without also considering the effects of the medical schools' own policies and programs. Purpose: This study examines medical school commitment to rural policies and programs and its relationship to contextual characteristics and rural physician output. Methods: A survey of 122 US allopathic medical schools provided data to construct a 32-item Rural Commitment Index for each medical school. Data for other characteristics were linked from published sources. Correlations, t tests, and multiple regression analysis were used to study the association between variables and percentage of medical school graduates (1988-1996) who were in rural primary care practice in 2000. Findings: Among 90 medical schools (response rate, 73.8%), the Rural Commitment Index correlated with the percentage of the state population that is rural and whether the school is public or private, and it joined percentage state population rural, public vs private, and National Institutes of Health support in correlating with percentage of graduates in rural primary care. In a regression model that explained 48.4% of variation in the percentage of graduates in rural primary care, the Rural Commitment Index explained most variation, followed by percentage state population rural, public vs private, National Institutes of Health support, and the interaction between the Rural Commitment Index and public vs private. Conclusions: The findings support the proposition that observable institutional commitment affects rural physician output and provide justification for a definitive study to verify that a change in medical school commitment to rural medicine produces a change in rural physician output.

Wheeler, Steve; Amiotte, Shannon (2005).  The Death of Distance: Documenting the Effects of Distance Education in South Dakota  [Online Submission] 

South Dakota has arguably the most technologically advanced educational system in the United States. The state boasts a population of approximately 750,000 residents, distributed across an area measuring approximately 250 by 400 miles. South Dakota is experiencing a shortage of specialist teachers and university faculty, and the vast geographical distances prohibit the physical sharing of educational resources. To begin to address these issues, every school, college and university in the state has recently been connected with wide band communications cable, and equipped with specialized telecommunications suites. The use of public television broadcasting, videoconferencing, Internet based resources and distance learning methods has been introduced in a rationalized attempt to overcome the vast distances between schools and communities across a predominantly rural state. There is also a high percentage of Native Americans living in the state, located in tribal reservation areas as well as integrated within the general community. Because of social, economic or technological effects of any significant changes often have a detrimental effect on indigenous populations. The effectiveness of distance education and technology supported learning then, is a hotly contended issue. A major evaluation project was set up between 2002-2003 to measure the success rate of the new technology based learning approaches, and the extent to which the "tyranny of distance" could be overcome. Surveys and interviews with key instructors and administrators across the state were conducted, which yielded a rich vein of data. In this paper, the authors document the broader effects that the introduction of the technical infrastructure has had on the general population of South Dakota. | [FULL TEXT]

White, Aaronette M. (2006).  Psychology Meets Women's Studies, Greets Black Studies, Treats Queer Studies: Teaching Diversity and Sexuality across Disciplines  Feminist Teacher: A Journal of the Practices. 

How does an African American feminist psychologist develop and promote an interdisciplinary sexuality course placing the experiences of African American women at the center of analysis while simultaneously maintaining its relevance to all students? This article provides answers by explaining how a course's title, perspective, structure, and assignments were developed in ways that attracted students in the social sciences, humanities, women's studies, and African American studies. Furthermore, the course was taught at a state institution in a rural setting with approximately 40,000 students, 12 percent of whom are minorities and students of color.

White, Carmen M. (2003).  Historicizing Educational Disparity: Colonial Policy and Fijian Educational Attainment.  History of Education, 32, 4. 

Discusses multiracial issues in Fiji's educational system since its independence from Great Britain. Racial issues have caused disparity and controversy. States two major factors: (1) rural Fijian migrants have difficulties completing secondary up to Form 6; and (2) the 1987 Form 7 expansion of secondary school curriculum changed university entry preparation.

White, Carolyne J.; Bedonie, Clara; de Groat, Jennie; Lockard, Louise; Honani, Samantha (2007).  A Bridge for Our Children: Tribal/University Partnerships to Prepare Indigenous Teachers  Teacher Education Quarterly, 34, 4. 

This article is about bridge building: building cultural bridges of authentic collaboration between the university and the Navajo and Hopi nations; building curricular bridges between the White, European culture and the cultural worlds these nations seek to preserve; and building bridges between languages, the language of the colonizers--English--and the Navajo and Hopi languages that are vulnerable to extinction. As bridge builders the authors locate their work between the future--with a commitment to the students their students will teach--and a distant past, prior to Contact, when American Indian communities effectively educated young people into their tribal history, language, values, science, and all other forms of knowledge necessary to maintain their way of life. While there is much scholarly conversation about the importance of culturally responsive teachers, the authors find minimal attention to the particulars of programs like theirs that are focused specifically upon increasing the number of culturally responsive Indigenous teachers through tribal/university partnerships, and insufficient appraisal of what is working within such initiatives. In this article, the authors help fill this gap and encourage others to engage in similar bridge building initiatives.

White, Jennifer (2007).  Working in the Midst of Ideological and Cultural Differences: Critically Reflecting on Youth Suicide Prevention in Indigenous Communities  Canadian Journal of Counselling, 41, 4. 

Many non-Aboriginal practitioners are interested in working effectively with Aboriginal youth, families, and communities. Honouring Indigenous ways of knowing and being informed by a critical consciousness regarding the influence of history, politics, and social forces in the emergence of suicidal behaviour among Aboriginal youth are central to this work. By uncovering assumptions and locating suicide prevention practice within specific discourses, this article demonstrates the relevance and value of critical reflection. Qualities of curiosity, collaborative meaning-making, joint knowledge construction, and ethical engagement are valuable resources for counsellors practicing at the clinical or community level.

Whitehouse-Strong, Derek (2007).  "Everything Promised Had Been Included in the Writing": Indian Reserve Farming and the Spirit and Intent of Treaty Six Reconsidered  Great Plains Quarterly, 27, 1. 

In December 2005, a Canadian federal court justice dismissed a six-hundred-million-dollar claim by the Samson Cree related to alleged mismanagement of its energy royalties. In newspaper interviews, a lawyer for the Samson Cree expressed disbelief that the justice discounted the testimony of our elders and followed essentially the written word of the white man. Interestingly, 120 years before the justice dismissed the Samson Cree case, the Canadian Department of Indian Affairs actively sought Indian testimony, believing that oral accounts were more accurate than its own written records.

Whiting, Erin Feinauer; Ward, Carol; Villa, Rita Hiwalker; Davis, Judith (2005).  How Does the New TANF Work Requirement "Work" in Rural Minority Communities? A Case Study of the Northern Cheyenne Nation  American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 29, 4. 

In August of 1996 Congress passed the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA), which President Bill Clinton then signed into law. This essay will address the question, how have American Indian reservation residents fared in relation to the new work requirements? The authors are interested in the consequences of this requirement for all the stakeholders and, therefore, examine the perspectives of clients, employers, and program directors. Additional research questions include, how have these stakeholders adapted to meet the new work requirements, and what are the impacts of their efforts? The research focuses on a specific population, the Northern Cheyenne Nation, located in southeastern Montana, which recently became the poorest of the seven reservations in Montana, with 65 percent of the households living below the poverty level. Therefore, this case study is useful not only in detailing how a particular population has been affected by welfare reform but also in assessing possible implications of welfare work requirements for other reservation communities that may face similar circumstances. While the findings of the research corroborate the results of other studies of American Indian client experiences with the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) program, the research provides additional information by addressing the experiences of reservation clients served by a state TANF program, as well as the TANF program personnel and the employers who implement and enforce the new work requirement. These findings contribute to new understandings of whether TANF "works" in reservation contexts.

Whitty, Geoff (2008).  Twenty Years of Progress?: English Education Policy 1988 to the Present  Educational Management. 

This article assesses the period following the 1988 Education Reform Act (ERA) and reflects on the main continuities and discontinuities in policy emphases since that Act. It begins by outlining education policy under the Conservatives from 1979. In this, it shows how the Conservative's simultaneous pursuit of marketization and centralization in education, nowhere more so than through the ERA, provides a key illustration of Neave's (1988) "evaluative state". In then considering the record of New Labour on education, the article identifies three central strands of policy: first, targeted attempts to tackle disadvantage and, second, an emphasis on school improvement, both of which focus on schools themselves rather than the context in which they operate, and, third, the notion that school diversity and parental choice will lead to higher standards for all. This discussion is used to show the significant continuities between Conservative and New Labour policies in terms of the drive for an essentially market-based education system. In discussing the tensions that have arisen through New Labour's attempts to address disadvantage within a market-based policy framework, the article closes by commenting on the extent to which a new direction in education policy is emerging under Gordon Brown's premiership.

Wholey, Douglas; Moscovice, Ira; Hietpas, Terry; Holtzman, Jeremy (2004).  The Environmental Context of Patient Safety and Medical Errors  Journal of Rural Health, 20, 4. 

The environmental context of patient safety and medical errors was explored with specific interest in rural settings. Special attention was paid to unique features of rural health care organizations and their environment that relate to the patient safety issue and medical errors (including the distribution of patients, types of adverse events associated with learning, information flows, triage and transfer decisions, and culture of safety). Relevant organizational theories and strategies for medical error reduction and prevention in rural health care settings were identified. Financial and technical assistance are needed to support the systematic collection of data from rural hospitals and other entities and to enhance relevant patient safety practices for rural America.

Wickrama, K. A. Thulitha; Wickrama, K. A. S.; Romas, John A. (2005).  The Relationship of Individual, Family, and Community Characteristics with Physical Health: An Adult Study in 27 Rural Minnesota Counties  Journal of Rural Health, 21, 4. 

Context and Purpose: This study investigates associations between the proportion of farm families in rural counties and the health of rural individuals, independent of county poverty rate and individual and family socioeconomic factors. This study also examines relationships of these socioeconomic factors and prevalence of specific diseases. Methods: Multilevel analysis of 10,485 responses to a mailed health survey in 27 nonmetropolitan Minnesota counties. Findings: Individual- and family-level variables such as age, gender, lower income, and unemployment were significantly associated with adverse physical health. The percentage of farm families in counties was significantly associated with adverse physical health of adults, independent of individual and family characteristics, county poverty rate, ethnic composition, and population density.

Wihak, Christine (2005).  Culturally Relevant Management Education: Insights from Experience in Nunavut  Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 51, 4. 

The author's experience with a Nunavut business management education program illustrates how to develop culturally relevant organizational behavior curriculum. The process initially involved interviews with Inuit Elders about culturally appropriate responses to scenarios of cultural conflicts in the workplace identified by Inuit managers. The author then engaged in an experiential learning project working with an Aboriginal organization in southern Canada to develop a culturally appropriate organizational culture. The experience highlighted the importance of cross-cultural management educators recognizing diversity in another culture while actively demonstrating respect for and interest in the other culture's values and beliefs. The author recommends that in an increasingly globalized world, cross-cultural management educators undertake similar efforts to develop organizational behavior curriculum that reflects culturally diverse world views.

Wihak, Christine; Merali, Noorfarah (2007).  Adaptations of Professional Ethics among Counselors Living and Working in a Remote Native Canadian Community  Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 35, 3. 

Eight non-Native counselors who temporarily relocated to the Native Canadian community of Nunavut were interviewed upon their return about experiences working with Inuit clients that challenged their professional training. Analysis of the counselors' narratives suggested that they used a social constructivism approach to manage confidentiality, negotiate boundaries, and redefine ethical practice to mirror community values.

Wihlborg, Monne (2004).  Teachers' Understanding of Internationalization as an Essential Part of Nursing Education in Sweden  Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 48, 5. 

This study investigated how 60 teachers' in Swedish nurse education, in higher education, understood and taught internationalization. The teachers answered a self-administered questionnaire. A phenomenographic, contextual and content analysis approach was used. The results show that teachers were found to experience and understand internationalization in different ways, which could be related to two perspectives within their working context; an organizational didactic or an educational didactic. The findings imply the importance of reinforcing an understanding of internationalization in connection with a didactical theoretical awareness.

Wilcox, Ella (2005).  It All Depends on You: A Rural Music Educator Who Won't Quit  Teaching Music, 12, 4. 

Shickley Nebraska is an agricultural community where people have great pride in their school, community, and youth. With 98 percent of the students at the local high school college bound, the town motto is displayed on the brick "Welcome to Shickley" sign, and says "Welcome to Shickley, A Big Little Town." What makes rural music teachers special? This article answers that question by getting the details from a rural music educator with the Shickley Public School Ensemble in his discussion of success breeding success, support on all sides, full days and a busy schedule, and the bountiful harvest of planting the seeds of music and the benefits that the children will reap later. The article concludes with a list of tips from this educator for teaching in a rural setting.

Wiley, Angela R.; Bogg, Timothy; Ringo Ho, Moon-Ho (2005).  The Influence of Parental Socialization Factors on Family Farming Plans of Preadolescent Children: An Exploratory Analysis  Journal of Research in Rural Education, 20, 11. 

Previous scholarship on farm families emphasizes the importance of socializing children to become farmers. This study is the first to focus on the parental socialization factors that are associated with preadolescent children's attachment to, and plans to take over, the family farm. Forty-seven 7- to 12-year-old children and their farming parents responded to a survey regarding the child's involvement in farm work, the father's wishes concerning the child's future in farming, the children's perceptions of their relationship with parents, and the children's perceptions of parents' worry about the farm. Three of these four factors were associated with the children's plans to farm. Recommendations are provided to rural educators for supporting farm children and their families.

Wilkie, Meredith; Newell, Susan (2000).  School Communities: National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education. 

This document focuses on ways that Australian Aboriginal parents and communities can get involved in schools. It reflects the recommendation given to the Australian Parliament by the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) concerning the rights of Indigenous communities to self-determination within the education system. Chapters are devoted to seven different ways of getting involved in local schools, with examples drawn from actual experiences in different parts of Australia. The types of involvement described are parent committees, interagency committees, culturally appropriate schools, independent community schools, curriculum development, and teaching as an assistant teacher or aide. The last chapter describes how the best of these strategies have been combined in a culturally appropriate bilingual school with many Indigenous teachers and strong links with the local Indigenous community. Each chapter typically describes the main example in some detail, presents opinions about the example, discusses benefits and problems, identifies other examples, and presents recommendations from HREOC concerning the strategy or program discussed. | [FULL TEXT]

Williams, Dana (2004).  Raise the Bar  Teaching Tolerance. 

Detroit's Benjamin Carson Academy (BCA) is believed to be the nation's first charter school for juvenile offenders. Opened in 1999, BCA is housed in the newly built Wayne County Juvenile Detention Facility, a state of the art, 89,300-square-foot building in downtown Detroit with half a dozen gymnasiums, two computer labs, a media center, mental health unit and medical and dental facilities. All Wayne County youth ages 8 to 21 who are arrested or removed from their families are held at this facility and, while incarcerated, attend school at BCA. It is not the architecture or physical amenities that has drawn praise from juvenile justice advocates and experts nationwide. It is the school's unique focus on providing a nurturing atmosphere and quality education. It also is the mentoring and personal attention aimed at helping young people gain control of their studies--and their lives. In this article, the author describes how this developmental approach of BCA helps these young people improve their lives.

Williams, Doris Terry (2004).  Shaw High School A Case Study in Rural High School Improvement  [Rural School and Community Trust] 

Shaw High School is one of two schools making up the Shaw School District. The school is located in an old and once majestic building whose large concrete pillars still stand at the entrance. A small white house across the street holds the district administrative office. Several buildings, detached from the main building, house the cafeteria, media center, and other operations. Money is scarce at Shaw. The school board managed to put a new roof on the high school's main building several years ago, but there have been few other improvements in many years. The few physical improvements that have been made include a computer room and a Family Resource Center made possible by grant funds. In 2002-2003, subsequent to their efforts to implement place-based learning in writing and mathematics, Shaw School District adopted the First Things First comprehensive school reform model. Shaw saw in First Things First some points of intersection and compatibility with its ongoing improvement and reform efforts. The model called for small learning communities, extended instructional time for literacy and mathematics, family advocacy, active engagement of students, alignment of teaching with standards and high stakes assessments and rigor. An on-site coach assists with implementation. On the long and winding road to improvement, Shaw High School teachers and leaders have drawn from the various initiatives in which they have engaged over the years, and are successfully integrating selected aspects of each into a blended comprehensive school and community improvement effort. Despite missionary-like zeal, visionary leadership, pride and commitment to excellence, Shaw faces daunting challenges in the days ahead. The spirit of the place and people gives reason to believe that they will not succumb under the weight of the challenge; they will use it to spawn new zeal, new creativity, and new commitment. Still, one cannot help but wonder how long the creative juices can flow through the near abject poverty and neglect. What remains to be done is what Shaw cannot do for itself--obtain adequate funding to provide the quality education that its young people need and deserve, and improve the conditions that would make the town of Shaw a good place in which to live, work, and play. | [FULL TEXT]

Williams, James H. (2004).  Cross-National Variations in Rural and Socioeconomic Effects on Mathematics Achievement: A Statistical Overview  [Appalachian Collaborative Center for Learning] 

In the popular view, somehow, rural schools often just do not measure up. The world over, rural schools generally get short shrift in the allocation of resources and prestige, their lack of urbanness often a self-fulfilling indicator of deficiency. As a result perhaps, rural students may perform, on average, less well than others in terms of the expectations and needs of parents and communities as well as on standard measures of achievement. Though every country has rural schools schools that are often identified as troubled, little research has examined rural schooling across nations. Even the most basic descriptive information is lacking: How prevalent are rural schools in different countries? What percentage of students live in rural areas? How do rural students perform relative to their non-rural counterparts? Are patterns of achievement by rural students consistent across countries? Of particular interest are the poor. How well do poor rural students perform relative to other groups of students? How big a role do family characteristics play in conditioning academic performance in rural areas? What are the value and the values of rural education? Such questions are especially salient for mathematics, for mathematics competence is essential to full participation in the economic, political and social life of the community and the nation. | [FULL TEXT]

Williams, James H. (2005).  Cross-National Variations in Rural Mathematics Achievement: A Descriptive Overview  Journal of Research in Rural Education, 20, 5. 

Using PISA 2000 data, this article examines cross-national variation in rural mathematics achievement among 15-year-olds in 24 industrialized nations. Rural mathematics scores were significantly lower than scores in urban and medium-size communities in 14 of 24 countries. However, patterns were complex. Most commonly, a linear relationship obtained between community size and average math score. In some countries, however, students in medium-size communities scored highest, followed by urban then rural locales. In some countries, such as the U.S., students in urban communities scored lowest. U.S. rural mathematics scores sit squarely in the middle of the distribution. One explanation for lower rural achievement is lower SES. Consistent with other studies, the U.S. showed a marginal raw rural achievement gap, which disappeared when SES was controlled. Once SES was controlled, rural locale predicted mathematics scores in only 4 of 24 countries. Only in Russia was rural locale a statistically significant negative predictor of mathematics achievement, net of socioeconomic status. However, the U.S. showed a substantial gap in urban achievement. Further analysis suggested positive interaction effects in the U.S. between school SES and both urban and rural location.

Willis, Clarissa A. (2002).  Project TIES: Towards Inclusion in Early Settings Model Demonstration Project. Final Report. 

This final report describes the activities and outcomes of Project TIES (Towards Inclusion in Early Education), a federally funded demonstration model training program designed to enhance the abilities of child care providers and trainers to include young children, birth to five, with disabilities in developmentally appropriate child care settings. One of the key components of the project was to enhance the success of trainees by making training available locally in rural areas. TIES embedded information on inclusion in the existing state-wide Tennessee Early Childhood Training Alliance (TECTA) program and implemented training sessions in rural areas throughout the state of Tennessee. Over 1,272 people received training through this project and over 100 TECTA trainers received advanced training. TIES infused information in eight modules including professionalism, child development, developmentally appropriate practice, healthy and safe environments, guidance, observation and assessment, family relationships, and cultural and individual safety. Essential features of the model included the use of curriculum based on NAEYC/DEC best practices, local training of trainers and trainees, reimbursement for professional development, activity based training, consultation, support for parents, mentoring, consulting, and networking. TIES provided a manual, a material kit, and training for TECTA sites. As a result of TIES activities, TECTA redesigned their curriculum to include information and training which addresses inclusion of children with disabilities or delays. During the final year of the project, follow-up surveys to assess the effectiveness of TIES were distributed to all nine sites in Tennessee. Appendices include: Letters of Support; TIES Products and Resources; TECTA/TIES Model; Map of Tennessee TECTA/TIES Training Area; Survey of Project TIES Kit; Inclusion Questionnaire; Follow-Up Surveys; and Dissemination and Documentation, Resources, Outside Evaluation.   | [FULL TEXT]

Willis, Steve (2005).  The Four Directions  International Journal of Art and Design Education, 24, 1. 

This article presents the Native American cultural symbol, the Four Directions, as a sign that is culturally evident and inter-tribally significant. Through understanding the significance of the symbol, a deeper understanding is possible for non-Natives, especially an understanding of the Native Americans' relationship between their artwork and their culture. It will be argued that through a deeper understanding and cultural saturation by non-Natives that cultural misinformation can be reduced. Even though the article makes no attempt to define a culture, community, or person, cultural groups are presented through image and story.

Wilson, Donna M.; Justice, Christopher; Sheps, Sam; Thomas, Roger; Reid, Pam; Leibovici, Karen (2006).  Planning and Providing End-of-life Care in Rural Areas  Journal of Rural Health, 22, 2. 

Context: Approximately 20% of North Americans and 25% of Europeans reside in rural areas. Planning and providing end-of-life (EOL) care in rural areas presents some unique challenges. Purpose: In order to understand these challenges, and other important issues or circumstances, a literature search was conducted to assess the state of science on rural EOL care. Methods: The following databases were searched for articles published from 1988 through 2003: EMBASE, Medline, CINAHL, AHMED, Psychinfo, ERIC, HealthStar, Sociological Abstracts, and Cochrane. All articles were systematically reviewed. Findings: Thirty-six research articles were identified. Only 1 randomized controlled trial was located. Most research was single site, small sample, and exploratory/descriptive in design. Four distinct foci in this body of research were noted: (1) identifying and describing differences between urban and rural EOL care; (2) exploring rural EOL care; (3) assessing the EOL needs and wishes of terminally ill or dying persons, their family members, and health care professionals in rural areas; and (4) exploring EOL education for rural EOL care providers. Conclusions: Although rural EOL care research is not extensive, the existing literature is helpful for realizing the importance of EOL care in rural communities, as well as for conceptualizing and planning EOL care in rural communities. One of the chief considerations for rural EOL care is that dying at home is a common wish, with home-based nursing care a key factor for this to become a reality. Another chief consideration is ensuring all rural health care professionals are both prepared for and supported while delivering EOL care.

Wilson, Geoff A. (2004).  The Australian "Landcare" Movement: Towards "Post-Productivist" Rural Governance?  Journal of Rural Studies, 20, 4. 

This paper analyses whether the Australian Landcare movement complies with notions of "post-productivist rural governance." The paper argues that Landcare has been a vast improvement on previous approaches to the management of the countryside in Australia, and that it has managed to mobilise a large cross-section of stakeholders. However, the Landcare movement only depicts certain characteristics of post-productivist rural governance. Although Landcare has some elements that fit in with theorisations of social movements, it still depicts many characteristics that show its close affiliation with the state and its agencies (in particular budgetary shackles). Landcare cannot be conceptualised as a fully inclusive movement, and there is little evidence that Landcare has been able to actively shape government policy. However, Landcare has contributed towards changing environmental attitudes, which can be seen as a key precondition for the successful implementation of post-productivist rural governance structures. In particular, Landcare's innovative approach of mutual farm visits, and its emphasis on the demonstration of "best practice," has led to both an increased awareness of land degradation problems and the creation of grassroots "information networks." There has also been some success with regard to Landcare's ability to change attitudes of the wider Australian public. Two important lessons with regard to conceptualisations of post-productivist rural governance emerge. First, individual components of post-productivist rural governance may change at different times, with the attitudinal level most influenced by Landcare, while underlying socio-political productivist structures will take much longer to change. Second, the problem in being able to label Landcare (the most innovative rural programme in advanced economies) as an expression of post-productivist rural governance shows how far away rural programmes in advanced economies still may be from such new forms of governance. The results, therefore, support those advocating that post-productivism may only be a theoretical construct in the minds of academics, rather than an expression of reality on the ground.

Wilson, Geoff A. (2008).  From "Weak" to "Strong" Multifunctionality: Conceptualising Farm-Level Multifunctional Transitional Pathways  Journal of Rural Studies, 24, 3. 

Building on normative conceptualisations of multifunctionality as a decision-making spectrum bounded by productivist and non-productivist action and thought, this paper analyses farm-level multifunctional agricultural transitions. First, the paper suggests that it may be possible to categorise different farm types along the productivist/non-productivist multifunctionality spectrum, and that transitional potential from weak to strong multifunctionality often differs between different categories of farms and types of farm ownership. Second, the paper conceptualises multifunctional transitional processes at farm level over time, and introduces the notions of multifunctional path dependency and decision-making corridors, the latter of which can be understood as "bundles" of decision-making opportunities bounded by productivist and non-productivist action and thought. The analysis suggests that system memory plays an important role in defining the likelihood of multifunctional actions, and argues that transitional ruptures--sudden breaks in transitional pathways--often characterise farm-level transitions. The paper concludes by highlighting the methodological challenges awaiting future researchers of multifunctional agricultural transitions.

Wilson, Lisa J. (2004).  Riding the Resource Roller Coaster: Understanding Socioeconomic Differences between Mining Communities  Rural Sociology, 69, 2. 

Social science studies of mining communities suggest that the well-being of these company towns varies a great deal. Yet the literature has not thoroughly explained the sources of that variation, especially its potential relationship to the resource itself. In order to clarify our understanding of socioeconomic well-being, this paper likens the experience of being mining dependent to riding a roller coaster. While many mining areas experience volatile economic conditions, key characteristics and responses of the communities, companies, and resource alter the ride. To illustrate this concept, the paper examines employment trends in two metal-mining regions of the Midwest and finds that employment was more volatile in one area than the other. The reasons for the differences between the communities are explored. The paper concludes that paying greater attention to the context in which mining occurs and to the resource itself may help clarify the impacts of mining on local communities.

Winders, Bill (2004).  Sliding toward the Free Market: Shifting Political Conditions and U.S. Agricultural Policy, 1945-1975  Rural Sociology, 69, 4. 

Between 1945 and 1975, the twin pillars of U.S. agricultural policy--price supports and production controls--were weakened significantly. Price supports levels were reduced and made flexible in 1954, and the concept of parity was removed in 1973. Production controls were softened in 1964 and 1973. How can we explain these policy shifts? While many scholars focus on the rise of urban and consumer interests, I look at changes within agriculture and focus on the economic interests and political power of three segments of agriculture: producers of cotton, corn, and wheat. These segments anchored the political coalition that forged and expanded the New Deal agricultural policies. Yet, these policies eventually reshaped market conditions, thereby changing the interests of these segments. Changes in the economic interests and political power of these segments influenced the timing and substance of shifts in U.S. agricultural policy.

Winnail, Scott D.; Bartee, R. Todd; Kaste, Sunny (2005).  Existence of the School Health Coordinator in a Frontier State  Journal of School Health, 75, 9. 

The purpose of this study was to determine whether school districts in a rural western state employed school health coordinators or at least employed individuals who possessed the skills suggested for school health coordinators. Baseline data were collected soliciting the involvement of all 48 state school districts and the state girl's school (N = 49). Thirty-seven districts responded (75.5%). Identified school health coordinators were predominantly health and physical education teachers. Most coordinators spent minimal time (less than 10% of time) each week on school health coordination activities; nearly one half identified little or no coordination of school health efforts in their school districts; few identified personal involvement in budgetary matters concerning school health; and most identified their primary teaching responsibilities as the areas where the majority of their time was spent. Data collected help create a profile of the "typical" district level-school health coordinator in this frontier state and can assist in the development of future efforts aimed at school health coordination through the work of district-level school health coordinators.

Winstead, Teresa; Lawrence, Adrea; Brantmeier, Edward J.; Frey, Christopher F. (2007).  Language, Sovereignty, Cultural Contestation, and American Indian Schools: No Child Left Behind and a Navajo Test Case  Journal of American Indian Education, 46, 3. 

In this interpretive analysis elucidating fundamental tensions of the implementation of the 2001 No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act within Native-serving schools, we point to ways in which NCLB further limits the already contested sovereignty tribes exercise over how, and in what language their children are instructed. We discuss issues related to the self-determination exercised by schools, some problematic cultural assumptions inherent in the NCLB law, and the legal tension between NCLB and the 1990/1992 Native American Languages Act. Finally, we examine the detrimental effects that NCLB accountability measures could have on Navajo communities, and look at how the Navajo Nation has addressed sovereignty over tribal education in recent years vis-a-vis NCLB.

Wither, Sarah E. (2001).  Local Curriculum Development: A Case Study. 

There are concerns among educational theorists about the conservation of the environment and the rural life style and teaching students to be active community members. This has led to the publication of research papers on place-based theories, preservice teacher education, and a review of a national placed-based development program. The topic of K-12 curriculum development in rural communities, however, has not been addressed in any of the current research. This document presents a study aiming to provide guidance on local curriculum development for schools interested in creating their own place-based programs to enhance students' academic achievement. Because every place has its unique problems, place-based education encourages local curriculum development. This study involves five school districts with the formation of a consortium to develop place-based K-12 curriculum activities. | [FULL TEXT]

Withy, Kelley; Andaya, January May; Mikami, Judith S.; Yamada, Seiji (2007).  Assessing Health Disparities in Rural Hawaii Using the Hoshin Facilitation Method  Journal of Rural Health, 23, 1. 

Context: Health disparities between rural and urban communities are well documented. There are many suggested causes and many proposed solutions but no one-size-fits-all answer. The most successful community interventions have been introduced by communities themselves. However, before communities invest in such interventions, each group must identify and prioritize their needs. Purpose: This article describes the Hoshin facilitation method as a practical option assisting communities in assessing their needs and gaining consensus for future steps. Methods: Thirty-four meetings were held in 11 rural communities in Hawaii using the Hoshin process to identify factors that impact rural health. Themes were identified by constant comparative analysis and thematic frequency described. Commonality of responses between communities was examined. Informal feedback was collected from meeting participants. Findings: There was a great deal of commonality between community responses, with economic factors, drug use, lack of community leadership, lack of health care services and access to services, lack of healthy activities for youth, and poor public education being the most common issues noted. Group involvement in the meetings was high, and the facilitation method received positive feedback from participants. Conclusions: The Hoshin facilitation method is a very useful tool to help communities rapidly identify and prioritize areas for programmatic attention.

Witmer, Stacie M.; Hoffman, Lynn M.; Nottis, Katharyn E. (2004).  Elementary Teachers' Beliefs and Knowledge about Grade Retention: How Do We Know What They Know?  Education, 125, 2. 

Elementary teachers' beliefs, knowledge, and practice relating to retention were explored using an adapted version of the Teacher Retention Beliefs Questionnaire (Tompchin & Impara, 1992). A researcher-developed knowledge section was added to the original questionnaire to measure teachers' propositional knowledge of retention. Thirty-five, K-4 teachers from a rural school district in northeastern United States completed the questionnaire. Teachers from all grade levels believed retention was an acceptable practice. Students' academic performance was the most influential factor in retention decisions. Significant differences between K-2 and 3-4 teachers were found on several belief statements. Teachers' knowledge about the effects and outcomes of retention, measured by factual questions, was low, regardless of grade taught. The majority correctly answered knowledge questions based upon hypothetical students. No significant correlation was found between teachers' knowledge and retention practice. Issues related to the measurement of teacher knowledge and implications of the findings are discussed.

Wolverton, Mimi (2004).  The Northwest's Phantom Pool: Superintendent Certificate Holders Who Do Not Plan to Apply and Why  Rural Educator, 26, 1. 

Responses gathered in a recent study of the superintendency in the Pacific Northwest suggest that less than 25% of sitting superintendents in the year 2000 were under the age of 50; and 40% of those who were 50 years or older planned to retire within the next four years. While the pool of potential applicants includes over 1,000 superintendent certificate holders, fewer than 150 of respondents in the same study planned to apply for upcoming vacancies. This article examines aspects of the position that serve as disincentives to seemingly qualified candidates and the policy ramifications of possible pool inadequacy within the given context.  | [FULL TEXT]

Wood, Grace (2006).  Recognizing the Generational Divide: When X Meets Y at the Tribal College  Tribal College Journal of American Indian Higher Education, 17, 4. 

Like other tribal colleges across the nation, Fort Peck Community College (FPCC, Poplar, MT) has seen its student population get younger. As student demographics change, so do their expectations and needs, according to software game designer Mark Prensky. Faculty should be aware of the options and benefits of using technology to enhance instruction, especially as Generation X (those born 1960 to 1980) and Generation Y (those born 1980 to 2002) students fill their classes. Educational trends across the country show students taking more control of their learning with faculty as facilitators. Even though some faculty members seem to have difficulty with technology, students expect technology as part of their learning. This paper focuses on how "Digital Immigrant" educators (those not born in the digital technology age) will have to change the way they teach to the "Digital Natives" (those born into the digital age). Developing a curriculum that meets the needs of the students--that they can relate to and find useful--remains part of the challenge.

Wood, Karen (2008).  Mathematics through Movement: An Investigation of the Links between Kinaesthetic and Conceptual Learning  Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom, 13, 1. 

Developing strategies for engaging mathematics activities is always a challenge. Teachers seek out new resources and online activities to excite students and support their learning. Mathematics through Movement offers an active learning strategy requiring few resources, and a bit of imagination, to achieve a variety of outcomes across mathematics domains. It is based on sound educational theory and a lifetime of experience in dance. This paper examines the beginnings of research into this teaching strategy in a remote setting in Western Australia. It shows that this teaching tool can motivate talk, deepen understandings, and engage students in mathematics tasks.

Wood, R. Craig; Lange, George (2006).  The Justiciability Doctrine and Selected State Education Finance Constitutional Challenges  Journal of Education Finance, 32, 1. 

Public education funding in the past 40 years has increased significantly, with parties turning to the judiciary in order to address perceived educational opportunity inequities arising from state education finance distribution formulas. As the 21st century opens, the question of public education finance is set squarely before the courts. This article is presented in order to better appreciate this area of American jurisprudence. It is necessary to consider judicial theory, constitutional interpretation, and the unique nature of state courts and constitutions.

Woodhouse, Andrew (2006).  Social Capital and Economic Development in Regional Australia: A Case Study  Journal of Rural Studies, 22, 1. 

This article reports the findings of a case study of social capital and economic development conducted in two towns in regional Australia between 2001 and 2002. The hypothesis driving the research states that a town displaying a high level of social capital will also display a high level of economic development, while a town with a low level of social capital will display a low level of economic development. Moreover, it is suggested the social capital will exert a positive causal influence on economic development. The study goes some way to confirming this hypothesis and provides empirical evidence to suggest that both bonding and bridging social capital are important for successful community economic development outcomes.

Woodside, Jane Harris (2003).  Transforming Lives: The Access Program.  Now & Then, 20, 1. 

A program developed in Ohio partners schools and higher education institutions to increase college attendance in Appalachia. Field trips to a variety of work places and postsecondary institutions acquaint students with career and college options. As graduation approaches, schools counsel parents on financial aid. The program has increased college attendance rates and has been replicated in five states.

Wooller, Judith; Warner, Lesley (2001).  An Innovative Flexible Program for Rural Women. 

Central Queensland University's Women into Science and Technology program aimed to broaden the access of women to higher education, improve their career opportunities and employment prospects, and address the personnel shortage in engineering and technology by encouraging mature age women to consider these fields. The distance learning program was designed to give open access to all women regardless of their background. No prerequisites or educational standards are required. The subjects have been designed to bridge the gap between the student's knowledge level and grade 12, thus meeting the requirements of entry into most university courses. Age is no barrier, students can enroll at any time of the year, the course is not tied to any semester system, and the women can work at their own pace. Fees and academic support costs have been kept to a minimum. Government funding is available to qualified students, but some funding time limits interfere with the course being self-paced. Rural Queensland is conservative concerning gender roles. A woman returning to study faces guilt at moving outside the traditional role of domestic manager and derogatory remarks from community and family. One of the early study skills courses also develops self-esteem, and women are further supported through a contact list of other students in their area, a newsletter, and visits by the course coordinator. | [FULL TEXT]

Wright, Anne (2003).  Preserving and Affirming Rural Values through the Curriculum.  Educational Forum, 68, 1. 

Set within the context of New Zealand's national curriculum and culture, a case study describes how a small rural school developed a curriculum designed to preserve the values of its community. Computer-mediated communication, community classes, and projects such as a time capsule were the means that imparted community values and community ownership of its school.

Wright, Kathleen Anne (2007).  Reenergizing Small Communities: A Vital Role for Rural Schools  Educational Forum, 71, 4. 

New ways of participating in rural communities and in community development have evolved as the structure of rural communities has changed. In some communities, the impetus to redefine and reenergize is strong while, in others, ways to move forward have yet to be identified (Pomeroy 1997). Rural schools serve a vital role in recreating communities in a highly mobile, industrialized society. According to Lyson (2005, 26), "It is important for policy makers, educational administrators, and local citizens to understand that schools are vital to rural communities." This article, which is a follow-up to the author's case study involving a small New Zealand rural school (published in The Educational Forum 2003), examines the vital role schools play in recharging small communities. | [FULL TEXT]

Wright, Robert J.; Lesisko, Lee J. (2008).  Technology Infusion in a Rural School System: A Case Study from Pennsylvania  [Online Submission] 

For the past 10 years a rural Pennsylvania school system has worked to develop a high quality educational technology program. In 1997 the district surveyed its faculty and found that there was a low level of technology infusion in the teaching/learning processes. Teachers were also found to be uncomfortable with computers and software applications for both the classroom and also in their lives at home. Between 1997 and 2007 there were a number of changes in the district's curriculum, and a significant infusion of hardware and software was carried out. The district also provided continuous professional development and technical support for its teachers. The survey in 2007 provided data indicating that the situation had changed and technology is now widely utilized. One finding from the 2007 survey was that the home use of computers is a significant predictor of a teacher's embracing educational applications for educational technology. Another significant factor in technology understanding is whether the teacher is an elementary or secondary level educator. Survey is attached.  | [FULL TEXT]

Wu, Fangwei; Zhang, Deyuan; Zhang, Jinghua (2008).  Unequal Education, Poverty and Low Growth--A Theoretical Framework for Rural Education of China  Economics of Education Review, 27, 3. 

This paper constructs an intertemporal substitution educational model based on endogenous growth theory and examines the rural education, farmer income and rural economic growth problems in China. It shows that the households originally with the same economic endowment but different education endowment take different growth routes, the income difference between low- and high-income families can be enlarged as they take different educational growth routes, and the low-income family has the chance to get into the "poverty trap". In the mean time, urban and rural, developed and underdeveloped rural areas, as they take the different education growth routes the difference of economic growth tend to be expanded for the flow of high-quality labor and different industrialization, and they also have the risk of "poverty trap". The key to solve this problem is the active public policies that promote the equal education, rational income and equilibrium development.