Rural Education | T

Tabulawa, Richard Tjombe (2004).  Geography Students as Constructors of Classroom Knowledge and Practice: A Case Study from Botswana  Journal of Curriculum Studies, 36, 1. 

This study reports on the strategies (overt and subtle) employed by students in one senior secondary school in Botswana to keep their teachers in an information-giving position. Contrary to the prevailing view that the 'teacher dominance' of classroom activities so often reported in classroom studies results from teachers' desire for social control, this study sees the dominance as a negotiated product, resulting instead from teachers and students exercising power on one another. Such a view of classroom practice is only possible where power is conceptualized not as a negative force that dominates, but as a productive force that simultaneously constrains and enables human action. Viewed this way, classroom reality becomes a co-construction, a 'joint project' by teacher and students. Attempts to change this reality, therefore, must include both teacher and students.

(2005).  Taking Their Show on the Road: Becky Hebert & Siobhan Champ-Blackwell--National Network of Libraries of Medicine  Library Journal, 130, 5. 

They're two very different women with the same mission: outreach to medically underserved populations. Both work for the National Network of Libraries of Medicine. Becky Hebert (left) covers the Southeast/Atlantic region, and Siobhan Champ-Blackwell, the mid-continental region. They spend much of their lives on the road, exhibiting at minority health conferences and librarians' meetings, teaching minorities to access culturally relevant health information, and building partnerships with community-based organizations. Both women came to librarianship late but found this work a logical and purposeful extension of their background and values. Champ-Blackwell was profoundly influenced by her Irish immigrant parents, who came to America because of its promise of freedom and equality. Living with people active in civil rights and other causes, she grew up wanting "to live a life that is socially just." As a stay-at-home mom, long before she became a librarian, she volunteered with La Leche LeLeague and was president of the Nebraska chapter. She says, "I didn't realize it then, but I was already acting as a health educator, helping new families adjust to caring for a baby."

Talahongva, Patty (2008).  A Good Education?: Students Judge Tribal Colleges by Many Criteria  Tribal College Journal of American Indian Higher Education, 19, 4. 

Each year thousands of Native students enroll at tribal colleges. Many say the close proximity to home is a draw for them. Others check out the facilities, and some might look over the staff roster and ask how many Native instructors work at the college. Several factors go into their decisions to enroll in a particular tribal college. For their part, tribal recruiters extol the virtues of the college. They often tell students the college's accreditation status. And that is where information seems to be getting lost in the translation. When asked about the importance of accreditation to them, students were able to clearly articulate their own criteria for judging the quality of tribal colleges. However, few understood how accreditation status is acquired or what it means. In this article, the author interviews some tribal college students about how they judge their college, discussing how the students use accreditation, cultural philosophy, commitment, and other factors to critique their colleges.

Tanaka, Keiko; Busch, Lawrence (2003).  Standardization as a Means for Globalizing a Commodity: The Case of Rapeseed in China  Rural Sociology, 68, 1. 

Not all commodities are things, nor are all things available in society commodities. Then, what are commodities? Using the case of rapeseed and its products in China, this paper examines the role of grades and standards (G&S) in simultaneously determining the life of things as commodities and the position of humans as market participants. In the first section, we summarize our conceptual understandings of commodities. Next, the paper examines tests and trials to which rapeseed in China were subjected by the mid 1990s. We then discuss how G&S represent political processes among commodity chain actors for creating, legitimizing and maintaining the social relations between things and people. Lastly, we discuss our conclusion that the analysis of tests and trials helps us understand the process of commodification as simultaneous transformations of humans and things in a commodity chain while reorganizing linkages among these actors.

Tarca, Katherine (2005).  Colorblind in Control: The Risks of Resisting Difference Amid Demographic Change  Educational Studies: Journal of the American Educational Studies Association, 38, 2. 

Contemporary scholars argue that in recent decades American racism has changed its face, away from an outright racism that is no longer socially acceptable toward a more subtle form termed "aversive," "laissez-faire," or "colorblind" racism. This ideology embraces mounting American individualism, transferring group-based explanations of disparities between Blacks and Whites to individual-based rationales. Using this ideology, Whites can appear to embrace "equality for all" while maintaining a belief in the inferiority of Black individuals. This qualitative study examines the role of colorblind racism in the rural town of Andrews, which experienced rapid and significant growth in its Black community. The Andrews school district response to its newly diverse student population was characterized by difference blindness?an institution-wide refusal to acknowledge the Black students' particular backgrounds and needs. Black students' academic failure was attributed to their personal deficiencies, a response exemplified in the high school's Classy Living and Social Skills program. Ultimately, blindness to difference and lack of a collective response served to reinforce racism in this community. Andrews schools will need to acknowledge and address the needs of all their students to stimulate academic success and true equality.

Tawil, Sobhi (2006).  Qur'anic Education and Social Change in Northern Morocco: Perspectives from Chefchaouen  Comparative Education Review, 50, 3. 

This article documents patterns of take-up of traditional religious and primary school education in Chefchaouen, one of the most disadvantaged provinces in Morocco located in the impoverished northwestern region of the country. First, the author provides some background on the socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of the province of Chefchaouen, including the growing role of cannabis production in the local economy, as well as the significant heritage of traditional Muslim education. Next, he examines contemporary patterns of take-up of Qur'anic education in Morocco, highlighting (a) the disarticulation of the traditional system of Islamic education, the gradual integration of the post-elementary levels of learning, and the marginalization of the elementary levels of the "kuttab," as well as (b) how the difference between modern and traditional "kuttab" is generally overlooked, and thus a population of learners (7+ years of age) participating in traditional "kuttab" remain statistically "invisible" and consequently excluded from conventional analyses. Then, he explores how Qur'anic education functions as an alternative to public schooling, satisfying the demand of poorer rural households, which cannot bear the direct and indirect costs of schooling or whose children are pushed/pulled out the schooling system as a result of academic failure. Subsequently, he discusses the impact of the expansion of cannabis production on social demand for education in Chefchaouen and the way in which increased opportunities for child work to supplement family income is increasing the indirect costs of schooling, particularly at the level of the lower secondary cycle. Finally, he reconsiders the issue of resistance in education within the context of rapid social change, focusing on the negative perceptions of public school teachers and the declining perceived utility of public schooling among members of certain rural communities.

Taylor, Ann R.; Anderson, Shari; Meyer, Karen; Wagner, Mary Kay; West, Christine (2005).  Lesson Study: A Professional Development Model for Mathematics Reform  Rural Educator, 26, 2. 

In this action research report 4 teachers and 1 teacher educator use the Japanese lesson study model of professional development for 15 months in rural Carlinville, Illinois. In March 2001, 4 teachers identified a goal to improve their students' understanding of two step word problems in 2nd grade elementary mathematics. Teachers completed three cycles of researching, planning, teaching, evaluating and reflecting. They were motivated, empowered, and found lesson study effective professional development in their rural setting. It focused on the classroom lesson; provided an effective lesson plan and hours of focused professional development; supported attempts to put into practice best professional knowledge of reform mathematics; and developed a professional community among them. | [FULL TEXT]

Taylor, Brenna; Zimmer, Connie; Womack, Sid T. (2005).  Strategies to Prevent Teacher Stress and Burnout  [Online Submission] 

The purpose of this action study was to examine teachers' beliefs about the causes of stress and burnout in a rural Arkansas school district in 2004. One hundred thirty teachers of all grade levels of the school district were sampled with a Likert survey of 45 items. Subscales of the survey include stressor associated with administration, stressors associated with students, job satisfaction, professional self-esteem, and demographic information about the participants. Results indicated that overall respondents were very positive about being teachers; given the opportunity, almost 79% would choose teaching again as a career. Negatives included anxieties about student violence as expressed by a majority of teachers on three of the 45 items, and that the teachers believed that teaching is not respected by those outside the profession. The researchers concluded that overall the teachers in the district had very positive attitudes about teaching. Recommendations included (1) that the administration as teachers what works with students instead of asking textbook companies and administration (2) encouraging teaching input into curricular decisions (3) holding students and parents accountable for student achievement (4) making professional development opportunities more relevant.  | [FULL TEXT]

Taylor, Elizabeth R. (2002).  Evaluation of Counseling Services in a Rural School District: Assessing Current Program Status. 

In the late 1990s the Texas Education Agency advocated the transformation of all counseling services into developmental guidance programs. This document describes the process undertaken and the lessons learned when evaluating a small, rural school district in north Texas in order to begin this model transformation. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the pre-transformation counseling services through the eyes of school administrators, students, teachers, counselors, and parents. Information was derived from surveys, interviews, and time logs. The evaluation accomplished several tasks necessary for comparing current services with those in the newly developed guidance plan. It also resulted in some changes at the district level. These are discussed, along with lessons learned that might improve a future evaluation. | [FULL TEXT]

Taylor, Peter Leigh (2005).  A Fair Trade Approach to Community Forest Certification? A Framework for Discussion  Journal of Rural Studies, 21, 4. 

Forest certification has gained growing attention as a market-based instrument to make globalizing markets a force for mitigating rather than fostering environmental degradation. Yet in practice, market mechanisms currently appear to encourage concentration of forest certification in Northern temperate and boreal forests, rather than in the tropical forests certification originally aimed to protect. At the same time, the share of tropical and other Southern forests under community management is increasing dramatically. Utilizing a comparative analysis of coffee and wood products commodity chains, a preliminary framework is proposed for exploring the obstacles and the possibilities of a ''Fair Trade'' approach to community forest certification. Obstacles include the structure of conventional wood products commodity chains, common wood product characteristics, certification's current commitment to conventional market logics and practices, and informal governance influences favoring powerful economic actors. The paper argues, however, that other features of forest certification, especially in the FSC scheme, are potentially supportive of a Fair Trade community forestry approach.

Teaster, Pamela B.; Roberto, Karen A.; Dugar, Tyler A. (2006).  Intimate Partner Violence of Rural Aging Women  Family Relations, 55, 5. 

Although reports of intimate partner violence (IPV) decrease with age, a significant number of aging women experience IPV in their relationships. The structure and culture of rural environments may inadvertently conceal violence against aging women and inhibit prevention and treatment efforts. Guided by an ecological community framework, 3 focus groups involving 24 professionals working with victims of IPV in rural Kentucky and in-depth interviews with 10 aging rural women who had experienced IPV were conducted to examine the trajectory of, and community responses to, violence in late life. Findings revealed multiple interacting influences on IPV of aging women in rural areas including the womens families and resources, culture and locality, religion, community support, and government entities.

_____. (2007).  Technology and No Child Left Behind  [US Department of Education] 

Online learning is becoming an important facet of K12 education in meeting the requirements for highly qualified teachers in every classroom, in providing professional development for teachers and school choice and in tutoring options to students and parents. This fact sheet provides statistical data and U.S. Department of Education (USED) Office of Educational Technology initiatives in the areas of academic competitiveness, online learning as a valuable instructional tool in higher education, percentage of public schools with Internet access, distant learning enrollment, USED grants towards delivering online supplemental education services to rural and remote students, and USED support of online professional development for teachers. | [FULL TEXT]

Tellez, Sergio; Sandoval, Juan Carlos; Gonzalez, Octaviano (2006).  Intercultural University of Veracruz: A Holistic Project Promoting Intercultural Education  Intercultural Education, 17, 5. 

This paper describes the Intercultural University of Veracruz (UVI), an institutional Programme at the University of Veracruz in Mexico (Universidad Veracruzana Intercultural), as a product of the analysis and research carried out over a 10-year period on cultural diversity and education. There were several institutions and over 20 people involved in the project. In November 2004, the UVI was formally created and, within a record time, it was operating. By December 2005, four centres were established in four different intercultural regions of Veracruz: Selvas, Grandes Montanas, Huasteca and Totonacapan. A web site, partially written in several indigenous languages, was created to disseminate its activities. UVI is working closely with the Laboratory of Intercultural Studies at the University of Granada and INTER Group of UNED, both in Spain. We present its rationale, the process that led to its creation, and its current status.

Teranishi, Robert T. (2007).  Race, Ethnicity, and Higher Education Policy: The Use of Critical Quantitative Research  New Directions for Institutional Research, 2007, 133. 

Cross-sectional frameworks, or between-group approaches, in quantitative research in higher education have limitations that hinder what we know about the intersection of race and educational opportunities and outcomes.

Teulings, Coen N. (2005).  Comparative Advantage, Relative Wages, and the Accumulation of Human Capital.  Journal of Political Economy, 113, 2. 

I apply Ricardo's principle of comparative advantage to a theory of factor substitutability in a model with a continuum of worker and job types. Highly skilled workers have a comparative advantage in complex jobs. The model satisfies the distance-dependent elasticity of substitution (DIDES) characteristic: substitutability between types declines with their skill distance. I analyze changes in relative wages due to human capital accumulation. The concept of a complexity dispersion parameter or compression elasticity is introduced. Empirical studies suggest its value to be equal to two: a 1 percent increase in the stock of human capital reduces the Mincerian return by 2 percent.

(2004).  The U.S. Labor Force in the New Economy  Social Education, 68, 2. 

In the last two decades, the United States has been in the throes of rapid economic change brought by new technologies and the globalization of the economy. One of the best ways to study the effects of change on the U.S. population is through the abundant information available on the website of the United States Bureau of the Census. In addition to the decennial census, whose detailed results for the year 2000 are now available, the Bureau of the Census makes available the annual Statistical Abstract of the United States, which provides statistics on all aspects of U.S. life, from voting participation to weather records, and from education to entertainment. This article contains a snapshot of major trends that have affected the economy and labor force in the past two decades. It is derived from information collected by the Bureau of the Census, most of which is on the Bureau's publicly accessible website. The Census Bureau's list of the professions expected to see the largest job growth between now and 2010 is included in this article.

_____. (2001).  The New Appalachia: Ideas That Work. 

In 1996 the Appalachian Regional Commission reinvented itself, adopting a strategic plan that reaffirmed its two historic priorities--an economic and human development program and a developmental highway program--and rethinking how to achieve them. The plan established goals under five headings: education and workforce training that prepares Appalachian residents to compete in the world economy; the physical infrastructure necessary for self-sustaining economic development and improved quality of life; civic capacity and leadership; access to financial and technical resources that support dynamic local economies; and access to affordable, quality health care. This book presents brief descriptions and contact information for 120 innovative programs that address these goals. The programs are organized by goal and then by state. Programs in the education and training section are concerned with school readiness, entrepreneurial education, computer and Internet skills, parent participation, hands-on science, geographic information systems (GIS), job training, school-business partnerships, adult literacy, and college preparation. Programs in the civic capacity section include those involving individualized job training; youth leadership; and training in local government, leadership, business skills, and new information tools. A project index by state is included. | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2001).  The Learning Country: A Paving Document. A Comprehensive Education and Lifelong Learning Programme to 2010 in Wales. 

This document proposes a comprehensive education and lifelong learning program for Wales through 2010. The primary goal of the proposal is to transform Wales into a learning country where high-quality, lifelong learning provides the skills people need to prosper in the new economy, liberates talent, extends opportunities, and empowers communities. The proposal places strong emphasis on partnership with local communities to meet locally determined needs and priorities more flexibly and precisely and on promoting lifelong learning with consistent commitment to the following goals: realize sustainability; tackle social disadvantage; promote equality of opportunity; and sustain an environment that celebrates diversity and makes genuine progress toward realizing the benefits of bilingualism. Chapters 1-10 discuss the following aspects of developing a comprehensive education and lifelong learning program for Wales: (1) differences between England and Wales that necessitate different educational policies and practices; (2) solid foundations in the early years; (3) the vision of comprehensive education and lifelong learning; (4) learning and equality of opportunity; (5) progress and practitioners; (6) beyond compulsory education; (7) access and the future of higher education; and (8) outcomes. Contact addresses and a list of abbreviations are appended. The Learning Skills Development Agency's response to the proposal is also included.

_____. (2002).  Theoretical Framework for the Appalachian Collaborative Center for Learning, Assessment, and Instruction in Mathematics (ACCLAIM). 

This statement abstracts the theoretical framework for the Appalachian Collaborative Center for Learning, Assessment, and Instruction in Mathematics (ACCLAIM). ACCLAIM's mission is the cultivation of indigenous leadership capacity for the improvement of school mathematics in rural places. The mission addresses local organizational ability to (1) understand the rural context as it pertains to learning and teaching mathematics, and (2) articulate the meaning and utility of that learning for and by rural people. Ideally, developing important mathematical processes within the rural context involves modeling the features of natural and social existence (in mathematical terms), solving problems (in mathematical mode), reasoning inductively from data and deductively from assumptions, and knowing oneself mathematically (engaging in mathematics culturally and personally with consideration for both the cognitive and affective domains). Promoting such mathematical processes will hypothetically allow ACCLAIM to embed mathematical meaning within rural contexts. Sadly, educators and researchers too often regard the rural context as a deficiency from which students should somehow be rescued. Alternatively, context can represent a contradictory lifeworld potentially filled with meaning and interest deeply relevant to learning and teaching mathematics. A system of schooling responsive to rural issues could help students and teachers realize the variety of meaningful mathematics latent in rural lifeworlds. Some aims and general topics of a future research agenda are outlined. | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2003).  The Class "C" Survey, 2002-2003: Comparisons of Budgets, Levies and Enrollments of Class "C" Montana School Districts. 

This report presents data on enrollments, budgets, levies, costs per pupil, and teacher and staff salaries in Montana's smallest (Class "C") school districts for 2002-03. Class C indicates high school enrollment of 130 students or less. Surveys were received from 69 of 93 public schools and 1 of 5 nonpublic schools in the category. The range of Class C enrollments was 40-243 (average 119) in elementary schools, 22-120 (average 68) in high schools, and 26-363 (average 145) in K-12 schools. Cost per pupil to the general fund budget without special education averaged $4,182 in elementary schools, $7,296 in high schools, and $6,006 in K-12 districts. The pupil/teacher ratio averaged 11.1 in elementary schools, 7.6 in high schools, and 7.9 in K-12 districts. Teacher salaries averaged $28,792. Data tables provide the following information for each responding school: enrollment; taxable valuation (total and per pupil); general fund budget without special education (total and per pupil); general fund reserve as percentage of general fund; guaranteed tax base per mill; over base budget and levy mills required; special education budget and FTE personnel; transportation budget and cost per pupil; teacher salaries as percentage of total general fund; teacher/enrollment ratio; and teacher salaries (base, average, and highest). Summary tables present minimum and maximum wages for school staff and salaries for extra duty items. Appendix details individual school data on staff wages and extra duty payments. | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2003).  The Effects of Active Learning Programs in Multigrade Schools on Girls' Persistence in and Completion of Primary School in Developing Countries. Girls' Education Monitoring System (GEMS). 

Multigrade schooling is a strategy to increase the educational opportunities of children in situations where it is impractical to have one primary school teacher per grade because of the limited size of the student population. In a multigrade school, teachers manage two or more classes simultaneously. A single teacher may be responsible for all primary grades. Multigrade schooling is used in isolated rural areas of developed and developing countries. This document presents a summary of the results of a study of the effects of participation in multigrade schools with innovative learning programs on female students. The results presented are from the countries of Guatemala, which has a 10-year history of developing active learning programs for multigrade schools; Nicaragua, which is in the fourth year of developing an active learning program for both multigrade and graded schools; and the Philippines, where the U.S. Department of Education and the United Nations International Children's Education Fund have been working to expand and improve multigrade schooling for about 8 years. The study combined analysis of existing historical data on the selected multigrade education programs with ethnographic assessment in schools and communities to determine elements of such programs that promote girls' persistence in primary school. The document contains six parts: (1) "Overview"; (2) "Setting: Multigrade Schooling and the Rural Poor"; (3) "Active Learning in Multigrade Schools: 'Nueva Escuela Unitaria,''Escuela Modelo,' and the Multigrade Demonstration Schools Project"; (4) "Programs in Action"; (5) "Program Performance: Change in Student Outcomes"; and (6) "Discussion." Includes 3 figures and 14 tables. Includes seven appendices and a bibliography. | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2004).  The High Cost of Being Poor: What It Takes for Low-Income Families to Get By and Get Ahead in Rural America. Strengthening Rural Families  [Annie E. Casey Foundation] 

The good news is that today more low-income parents--in rural as well as urban communities--are holding down jobs and bringing home a paycheck than at any other time in recent memory. Like all parents, they hold fast to the belief that their hard work and sacrifice will translate into a better life for themselves and their children. The bad news is that, despite working hard and playing by the rules, far too many low-income parents in rural communities still find severe obstacles in their path out of poverty. Despite their best efforts to succeed in the workplace, many find it nearly impossible to build the savings and assets that are, for all families, the critical ingredients for achieving genuine economic security. Even though low-income parents are working harder and longer, too many find it difficult to get by and get ahead. For the low-income rural working family it must seem as though they are bringing their hard-earned wages home in a leaky bucket--losing some of it to taxes, some to work related expenses, some to lost government benefits. And sadly, when they get home with what little is left, they find that the cost of caring for their families is greater than it is for everyone else. Clearly, if we are to level the "affordability" playing field for our most vulnerable families, much needs to be done. The good news, as indicated by the range of efforts taking place nationally, is that many are recognizing that paying more simply because you are poor is a practice that is out of sync with our country's core values.  | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2004).  The Rural Early Childhood Information Gap. Rural Early Childhood Brief, Number 1  [National Center for Rural Early Childhood Learning Initiatives - Mississippi State University Early Childhood Institute] 

The shift of public policymaking regarding children and families from the federal to the state and local levels has increased demand for measures of child well-being in states and communities. However, it is difficult to obtain reliable data about the well-being of rural children in states or communities. Of 61 key indicators of child well-being, 51 cannot be estimated for rural children using public-use data and a precise definition of rurality. Even using non-public-use data, most of these indicators can only be estimated for rural children under 18 nationally and in some larger states. More should be done to promote the analysis and dissemination of child well-being indicators for rural children. Indeed, with millions of children living in rural areas across the country, more must be done to ensure that public policy anticipates the needs of these children. This is especially important given the extra challenges that long distances pose for services to rural children and their families, and given the greater role that state and local governments play in child and family policy. This Rural Early Childhood Brief is a summary of a lengthier Rural Early Childhood report, "Young Children and the Rural Information Gap: The Weaknesses of Major Data Sources for Examining The Well-being of Rural Children," by Jeffrey Capizzano and Alexandra Fiorillo. [This report produced by National Center for Rural Early Childhood Learning Initiatives, Mississippi State University.] | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2005).  The Funding Gap 2005: Low-Income and Minority Students Shortchanged by Most States. A Special Report by the Education Trust 

Every Year, thousands of American children enter school already behind. Although most Americans are aware of that fact, what they often don't know, is that instead of organizing our educational systems to make things better for these children, we organize systems of public education in ways that make things worse. This report is unique among funding equity reports in looking not at overall differences between school districts but, rather, on who wins and who loses as a result of state and local financing decisions. The Funding Gap looks at the outcomes of policy choices made in every state and documents that most states continue to shortchange the districts educating the greatest numbers of poor students and students of color. Funding gaps undermine one of the most powerful and core beliefs that Americans cling to :that no matter what circumstances children are born into, all have the opportunity to become educated citizens. This report analyzes annual financial data from each of the nation's more than 14,000 public school districts, gathered by the U.S. Census Bureau and the U.S. Department of Education. The calculations are based on the total amount of state and local revenues each district received for the 2002-2003 school year.  | [FULL TEXT]

The Entrepreneurial Campus Initiative (ECI) is a collaborative effort between the Northland Foundation, the Northeast Entrepreneur Fund and the Center for Rural Policy and Development. The purpose of the initiative is to explore and design new ways in which rural college campuses can be more engaged in entrepreneurship and business development in the host communities and regions in which they reside. To that end, the ECI conducted an initial survey of current students in seven community and technical colleges in the northeast region of Minnesota to learn more about their work history, career aspirations, orientation toward entrepreneurship and their propensity stay in the northeast region of the state. Surveys were administered to students by faculty in both mid-morning and evening classes. The survey took 15 minutes to administer in the classroom, creating only a small disruption from normal activities. In all, 1,385 usable surveys were completed and make up the foundation of this report.  | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2005).  The Secure Rural Schools and Community Self-Determination Act of 2000. Hearing before the Subcommittee on Public Lands and Forests of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session (February 8, 2005). Senate Hearing 109-5  [US Senate] 

The purpose of this hearing was to review the implementation of Titles I through III of Public Law 106-393, "The Secure Rural Schools and Community Self-Determination Act of 2000." Statements were presented by: Honorable Jeff Bingaman, U.S. Senator from New Mexico; Honorable Maria Cantwell, U.S. Senator from Washington; Honorable Larry E. Craig, U.S. Senator from Idaho; Dr. Timothy Creal, Superintendent, Custer School District, Custer, South Dakota; James B. French, Trinity County Superintendent of Schools, Weaverville, California; Reta Griffith, Commissioner, Pocahontas County, West Virginia; Honorable Tim Johnson, U.S. Senator from South Dakota; Sherry Krulitz, Commissioner, Shoshone County, Idaho on Behalf of the National Association of Counties and the Idaho Association of Counties; Tim Lillebo, Conservation Policy Advocate, Oregon Natural Resources Council, Bend, Oregon; Mark Rey, Under Secretary, Natural Resources and Environment, Department of Agriculture; Honorable Ken Salazar, U.S. Senator from Colorado; Ed Shepard, Assistant Director, Renewable Resources and Planning, Bureau of Land Management, Department of the Interior; Ed Wehrheim, Chairman, Catron County Commission, Catron County, New Mexico; Honorable Ron Wyden, U.S. Senator from Oregon. | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2006).  The Impact of Women Teachers on Girls' Education. Advocacy Brief  [Online Submission] 

The recruitment of women teachers can have a positive impact on girls' enrollments in school. This advocacy brief promotes the recruitment of women teachers which is currently held back as a result of gender disparities. The publication explains how recruitment of women teachers could relate to girls' education, stating some current issues facing girl education and ways where women teachers can fill the gap. However, the recruitment of women teachers has not been very successful in some countries, due to gender assumptions and lack of support. The publication provides insights into these obstacles and possible solutions such as specific recruitment strategies, and professional development for new and existing women teachers. Girls could become teachers after receiving formal education thereby boosting education for girls. But it is also up to policy makers to remove some currently depressing conditions that hinder their development.  | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2006).  The Third ACCLAIM Research Symposium. Mathematics Education: Reform and Resistance in the Life-Worlds of Rural Schools and Communities. A Proceedings Document (3rd, Newark, Ohio, May 18-20, 2006). Occasional Paper No. 14  [Appalachian Collaborative Center for Learning, Assessment, and Instruction in Mathematics (ACCLAIM)] 

This document summarizes the proceedings of the Third ACCLAIM Research Symposium, which took place over three days from May 18 through May 20, 2006. The Center's doctoral students took prominent roles, especially the entire second cohort of doctoral students. Three members of the first cohort also participated in events. Overall, the symposium staged a generative mix of voices new and familiar to the Center, of rural and urban voices, and of voices articulating varied cultures--and it brought both rising and established scholars together as colleagues: more than 40 altogether. Events were divided between three plenary talks on the one hand (by David Gruenewald, Marta Civil, and Sarah Lubienski) and on the other hand by eight small-group conversations (sponsored and led by Ted Coladarci, Alan DeYoung, Rico Gutstein, Aimee Howley, Craig Howley, Jim Lewis, Noran Moffett, and Paul Theobald). ACCLAIM doctoral students cordially and effectively facilitated each of these events, and prepared notes. Their notes inform this proceedings document. The more formally arranged sessions (plenary talks and conversations) were punctuated, as well, by six panels. Three panels composed of two doctoral students and a faculty member opened the responses to the plenary talks. In addition, the symposium convened three stand-alone panels: (1) What Does Resistance to Best Practice Mean? (all panelists were faculty); (2) Students Interrogate Participants (all panelists were students, posing questions to faculty participants); and (3) Students Sum Up (all panelists were students, reflecting on issues and dilemmas raised). Appended to this document are: (1) Speculations about the Symposium's Theme; (2) Agenda; and (3) Participant List.  | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2006).  The National Rural Alcohol and Drug Abuse Network Awards for Excellence 2004: Submitted and Award-Winning Papers. Technical Assistance Publication Series (TAP) 28  [Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration] 

This TAP presents seven papers submitted to the 2004 National Rural Alcohol and Drug Abuse Network (NRADAN) Awards for Excellence. Each paper describes effective and innovative models of treatment and prevention services in rural populations. This publication seeks to promote and showcase research addressing the unique and special challenges of providing treatment services to individual in rural areas and their families. The first place paper, "Creating and Sustaining an Adult Drug Court: Avoiding Burial in Grant's Tomb," (Glade F. Roper and Dee S. Owens) describes the effectiveness of a self-funded drug court in Tulare County, California; lessons learned; and disadvantages and advantages of the self-funded approach. The second place paper, "Empower for Recovery: An Innovative Approach to Assist Sustained Recovery in Rural Iowa," (Deborah K. Rohlfs) describes the effectiveness of a strength-and homebased substance abuse treatment and recovery support program in rural Iowa, as well as the challenges, problems, and solutions related to program implementation. The third place paper, "Delivering a Maternal Substance Abuse Intervention Program along the Rural Route," (Trudee Ettlinger) describes the development and effectiveness of an indicated-level substance abuse prevention program for lower income mothers living in rural Vermont, as well as the lessons learned and recommendations for improving implementation. "Socio-Demographic Profiles and Treatment Outcomes of Methamphetamine Abusers in Rural and Urban Areas" (Kazi A. Ahmed, and Careema Yusuf), is the fourth paper, and compares methamphetamine abusers in rural and urban areas, specifically their socio-demographic characteristics, actual use behavior, and drug use and nondrug treatment outcomes. " An Environmental Scan of Faith-Based and Community Reentry Services in Johnson County, Iowa" (Janet C. Hartman, Stephan Arndt, Kristina Barber, and Thomas Wassink) is fifth in the series, and focuses on community corrections, substance abuse treatment providers and faith-based organizations supporting reentry clients. Sixth in this group of papers, " Substance Abuse among Rural and Very Rural Drug Users at Treatment Entry" (Marlies L. Schoeneberger, Carl G. Leukefeld, Matthew L. Hiller, and Michael Townsend) examines the demographic distinction between rural and very rural drug users. Implications are discussed and recommendations are presented for substance abuse treatment providers and policymakers. The seventh and final paper, "Making the Addiction Severity Index User Friendly: An Electronic Display of Client Outcomes Using Shareware" (James E. Sorensen, James Elzey, and Faith Stuart), attacked a root problem in the use of outcome instruments: the inability to conveniently summarize and display client outcomes. Each paper provides references. "Resources on Rural Substance Abuse Issues" provides descriptions of programs, and contact information.  | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2006).  The 2005 Minnesota Internet Study: An Examination of Metro/Rural Differences in Digital Technology Adoption   

Since 2001 the Center for Rural Policy & Development (CRPD) has annually conducted surveys of rural Minnesota households to discern the level of computer ownership, Internet connectivity and broadband adoption throughout rural Minnesota. Since the beginning of this longitudinal effort, significant increases in technology adoption have been observed and reported. This is especially true in the continually increasing number of rural Minnesotans who connect to the Internet using a broadband connection. Throughout the years, however, data and information, while useful to both industry and policy makers, was continually met with the question, "How do these numbers compare with households in Minnesota's seven-county metro area?" In 2005, CRPD conducted two separate surveys simultaneously, one for the seven-county Twin Cities area and one for the 80 counties of Greater Minnesota. Findings suggest that both computer ownership and Internet connectivity remain relatively flat throughout rural Minnesota, at 62 percent and 54 percent respectively. Comparable data from the seven-county Twin Cities metro suggest that there are indeed differences in technology adoption between rural and metro areas. 73 percent of metro households report having home computers; 64 percent have an Internet connection; and 44 percent report having a broadband connection. Findings continue to show that technology adoption is strongly correlated with key socio-demographic factors, and that broadband users tend to spend more time online than dial-up users and engage in more online activities.  | [FULL TEXT]

Theobald, Paul (2005).  Urban and Rural Schools: Overcoming Lingering Obstacles  Phi Delta Kappan, 87, 2. 

As we move into the 21st century, a largely unprecedented trend has emerged. Rural and urban schools, for so long faced with distinctly different challenges, have increasingly found themselves facing similar problems: a declining tax base, rising rates of linguistic and cultural diversity, deteriorating infrastructures, and inability to attract and retain qualified teachers, among others. Despite facing the same challenges, it is relatively rare to witness instances of rural and urban school collaboration. This essay uses an historical overview to identify obstacles to rural-urban school cooperation as a first step to improving the circumstances faced by both.

Theobald, Paul (2005).  Representing Rural Context in Doctoral-Level Math Education Courses: A Guide for Mathematics Education Professors. Occasional Paper No. 12  [Appalachian Collaborative Center for Learning] 

This short paper is designed to serve as a kind of primer for professors interested in thinking through ways to build a rural dimension into mathematics education courses in the interest of squarely addressing the vision and mission of ACCLAIM. Few words, therefore, will be deployed in the interest of establishing an intellectual warrant for the assumptions and assertions embedded in these pages. In fact, all that will be said in this regard is that 1) the ascendancy of what is loosely referred to as "constructivist learning theory" over the past decade clearly elevates the role of context in the development of human understanding. In other words, if professors want students (pre-school through doctoral level) to achieve at high levels, the insertion of context is currently seen as critical by the great majority of the world's cognition theorists. And, 2) whether or not one views mathematics (or any other school subject) as value-neutral, the sum total of a K-12 school experience still serves as enculturation into a larger society. In that society, former students will play, minimally, a political and an economic role, regardless of whether they ever take a job or cast a vote. | [FULL TEXT]

Theobald, Paul (2006).  A Case for Inserting Community into Public School Curriculum  American Journal of Education, 112, 3. 

This essay contends that there are fundamental connections between a nation's political arrangements and its educational efforts on behalf of youth. Though the common school architects of the nineteenth century recognized these connections, they were profoundly forgotten in a later Darwinian milieu that suggested--our allegiance to democracy notwithstanding--that the business of statecraft is best left to the most "fit." This essay argues that to fully shrug off lingering vestiges of Darwinism, we need a new educational narrative, one premised on inserting community as a central curricular feature in the nation's public schools.

Theobald, Paul; Rochon, Ronald S. (2006).  Enclosure Then and Now: Rural Schools and Communities in the Wake of Market-Driven Agriculture  Journal of Research in Rural Education, 21, 12. 

The following is an historically-based analysis of a new phenomenon affecting rural schools and communities: animal confinement operations. A contrast is made between "enclosure" as it unfolded in England a few centuries ago and the way animal concentration units constitute a second, "modern" form of enclosure today. In both instances, as this essay demonstrates, rural populations have suffered markedly.

Thomas, Douglas D. (2005).  Middle Level Education in Rural Communities: Implications for School Leaders  Rural Educator, 27, 1. 

Middle level teachers and administrators working in small or rural schools often face unique obstacles in implementing recommended middle level practices. From sharing staff and schedules with other school sites, to inappropriate instructional techniques, to a general lack of understanding of the middle level philosophy, these obstacles can be a source of frustration for school leaders and hinder school improvement initiatives. A better understanding of these issues and the discussion of potential solutions will benefit teachers, administrators, and policy makers in improving middle level education in rural communities. By building on the positive characteristics found in rural and smaller schools, as well as identifying and addressing the obstacles encountered at smaller schools, middle level leaders can create and maintain distinctive and effective programs for their students.  | [FULL TEXT]

Thomas, Ruth; Adams, Marilyn; Meghani, Naheed; Smith, Maria (2002).  Internet Integration in High Schools: Patterns, Opportunities, and Barriers. 

Internet integration in high schools on a schoolwide scale was examined through case studies of five high schools in inner city, urban, suburban, and rural communities across the United States. A total of 322 teachers, 19 administrators, 19 counselors, 7 technology coordinators, and 3,822 students were surveyed, and 219 staff and students were interviewed. Teachers at all the sites and across all subjects found the materials available to them on the Internet useful in their teaching. Once initiated, Internet use in the schools gave rise to an array of continuing resource demands. Internet availability in schools broadened opportunities for teachers and students, with the identified Internet-induced changes in schools ranging from infusing enhancements and complexities into existing arrangements and practices to fundamental shifts. As a transformative agent, the Internet equalized opportunities, changed student learning, changed social status, and changed the following aspects of teaching-learning systems: curriculum; teaching practices; teachers' and students' roles and relationships; and planning and management. The following contextual influences on schools' Internet integration were identified: commitment and leadership; interpersonal climate; access, time, competing priorities, training, and support; shared responsibility; and crises. Thirteen recommendations were presented. (Thirty tables/figures and 100 references are included. The staff and student survey questionnaire formats and interview protocols are appended.) | [FULL TEXT]

Thomas, Timothy G. (2005).  Teachers' Decision-Making about Place-Based Education and State Testing  Rural Educator, 26, 3. 

This qualitative study examined the effects of a high-stakes, standardized test on teachers' instructional planning at a rural school. The research addressed this question: How do mandated curricular standards affect teachers' instructional planning and content selection? Ethnographic interviews (Creswell, 1998) examined four secondary teachers' perceptions of the effects of high-stakes standardized tests on their work. Case study methodology (Yin, 1994) guided the analysis of the data. Each participant had several years' experience teaching at Mollusk Island School, and each teacher had previously included place-based lessons (e.g., environmental studies, cultural history) in his/her repertoire. Ultimately, the study explored how a community maintenance function of small rural schools might be affected by state legislation for standardized accountability. | [FULL TEXT]

Thompson, Nicola (2005).  Inter-Institutional Relations in the Governance of England's National Parks: A Governmentality Perspective  Journal of Rural Studies, 21, 3. 

Using Foucault's governmentality approach this paper analyses recent developments in power relations between different levels of government. Taking as its empirical focus the relationship between England's National Park Authorities (NPAs) and the UK government, the paper argues that there are two competing imperatives at work in the governance of England's national parks: a political imperative to devolve competencies to the regional level to allow for policy differentiation and an administrative imperative to manage and control the public policy process to ensure the achievement of national policy objectives in rural areas. Both imperatives shape the conduct of individual NPAs but to date the managerial tendencies of central government have been more influential in the changing governance of England's national parks.

Thompson, Nicole L.; Hare, Dwight; Sempier, Tracie T.; Grace, Cathy (2008).  The Development of a Curriculum Toolkit with American Indian and Alaska Native Communities  Early Childhood Education Journal, 35, 5. 

This article explains the creation of the "Growing and Learning with Young Native Children" curriculum toolkit. The curriculum toolkit was designed to give American Indian and Alaska Native early childhood educators who work in a variety of settings the framework for developing a research-based, developmentally appropriate, tribally specific curriculum to use with Native children aged 0-3. The curriculum toolkit should assist Native people in preserving and maintaining their unique culture and language. Challenges specific to the implementation of an early childhood program in Indian Country have been explained. A brief historical overview of Indian education has been included.

Thornton, Bill; Collins, Michele; Daugherty, Richard (2006).  A Study of Resiliency of American Indian High School Students  Journal of American Indian Education, 45, 1. 

Relationships between resiliency and student achievement were investigated in a population of American Indian high school students in a county school district of Nevada. The Resiliency Belief System was used to assess the resiliency of students. The participants were mainly female students (62%), with local tribal affiliation (51%), with a grade point average of 2.23, and a good record of attendance. School related variable were predictive of resilience by gender, replicating the findings of earlier researchers. The results indicated a significant relationship between resiliency and gender, but a relationship between achievement and resilience was not observed.

Thornton, Linda H.; Vinzant, Rebecca S. (2000).  The Effects of Phonemic Awareness Instruction in First Grade on the Reading Scores of Rural Primary Students. 

A study investigated the effect of phonemic awareness instruction on the reading ability of first and second grade students. Participants were 100 second graders who had been in 5 first grades at Westside Elementary in Searcy, Arkansas. Using a posttest only control group design and a t test for independent samples, it was found that second grade students (n=42) who received a color-differentiated, rhythmic program of phonemic awareness and orthographic pattern instruction followed by a literature-based reading program in first grade scored significantly higher on the second grade SAT-9 reading test than students (n=58) who were instructed with a traditional basal reader program in first and second grades. Findings suggest that the phonemic awareness instruction was effective in improving the reading scores of the participating students.   | [FULL TEXT]

This policy brief summarizes the full report [ED468840], which describes a study that evaluated whether smaller school districts, as a result of their higher costs per pupil, experienced greater hardship in the areas of infrastructure, resources, and staffing. The policy brief reports on the results of a survey that was administered to the superintendents of Minnesota's 350 public school districts, who were asked to evaluate their district's infrastructure, programming, staff, curriculum, and funding via referenda. Also described are the effects of changes made in the 2001 legislative session and it proposes a policy to reduce disparities in the state's basic funding formula.  | [FULL TEXT]

Thurston, A.; Topping, K. J.; Christie, D.; Donaldson, C.; Howe, C. J.; Jessiman, E.; Livingston, K.; Tolmie, A. (2008).  Effects of Group Work Training on Science Attainment in Rural and Urban Schools  Research in Science & Technological Education, 26, 1. 

This study investigated the effects of collaborative group work skills training on pupil attainment in science. Twenty-four experimental classes were drawn from schools in rural and urban settings. Pupils in experimental classrooms engaged in general group work skills training and two structured group work activities in science. Attainment was assessed using the Performance Indicators in Primary Schools (PIPS) instrument. Significant gains in science attainment were observed in the experimental urban and rural classes. Significant changes in observed group work behaviours were observed in both urban and rural classes. Changes in group work behaviour were correlated to increased science attainment. The implications for practice, policy and future research are explored.

Timmons, Vianne; Critchley, Kim; Campbell, Barbara Ruth; McAuley, Alexander; Taylor, Jennifer P.; Walton, Fiona (2007).  Knowledge Translation Case Study: A Rural Community Collaborates with Researchers to Investigate Health Issues  Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 27, 3. 

Introduction: Knowledge translation implies the exchange and synthesis of knowledge between researchers and research users, employing a high level of communication and participation, not only to share the knowledge found through research, but also to implement subsequent strategies. Prince Edward Island, a rural province in Canada, provided the setting to exchange knowledge between researchers and a rural community on the health issues affecting children. Methods: A case study reports census data, demographic trends, and information about health issues immediate to the community. These focus groups were held to plan solutions to the community's health priorities. The process was participatory, characterized by community involvement. Results: Those participating in the focus groups were interested in research findings and literature to solve local problems. Parenting and mental health were determined to be priority issues requiring broader community engagement. The process of translating knowledge into action after the focus groups met lacked widespread involvement of the community. Discussion: Although encouraged to do so, the larger rural community did not participate in examining research findings or in planning interventions. The parents in this community may not have perceived themselves as having influence in the process or goals of the project.

Tippeconnic, John W., III (2003).  The Use of Academic Achievement Tests and Measurements with American Indian and Alaska Native Students. ERIC Digest. 

This digest focuses on academic testing and American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) students. Ideally, test results should be used to improve student learning. Proponents of high-stakes testing say it is needed to measure student achievement and school quality and to hold students and teachers accountable. High-stakes testing is also used to publicly compare schools and districts; to determine entrance into particular programs, schools, or colleges; as criteria for promotion or graduation; and to make decisions about resource allocation. Opponents of testing argue that current testing programs do not provide valid or reliable information, especially for low-income and minority students, and have unintended, negative consequences. Nationally, AI/AN students have scored well below White and other minority groups of students on standardized tests of reading, language, and mathematics. Testing of AI/AN students has been a concern for years, as AI/AN cultures and languages were long considered obstacles to achievement, and the performance of White students was the benchmark for all. Standardized tests fail to consider the vast diversity of AI/AN languages and cultures, leading to serious issues regarding cultural bias, content comparability, norming of tests, and test validity. Other issues include environmental factors; student physical or emotional health; risk-taking behaviors of youth; and poorly funded, low-quality schools serving AI/AN students. Nine strategies are listed for improving test scores of special populations, including AI/AN students. | [FULL TEXT]

Tippeconnic, John W., III; Faircloth, Susan C. (2002).  Using Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Assessments To Ensure that American Indian and Alaska Native Students Receive the Special Education Programs and Services They Need. ERIC Digest. 

American Indian and Alaska Native students with limited English proficiency are overrepresented in special education programs. This digest briefly reviews the legislation and literature pertaining to the influence of language and culture in making referrals, administering assessments, and providing appropriate services to Native students. Educators should understand that differences in learning, behavior, culture, and language, either separately or in combination, may exacerbate educational problems caused by disabilities. Educators must also know how to distinguish between a student who has a learning disability and one whose poor academic performance results in part from limited English proficiency. Recommendations for ensuring culturally and linguistically appropriate assessment are given. Using multiple assessments rather than relying on a single instrument such as a standardized test is recommended. When using standardized tests, it is important to note the potential for bias if the test has not been normed on the population with which it is used. Authentic or performance-based assessments should be used. Parents and families should be involved in the assessment process. Educators should be aware of and responsive to students' cultural and linguistic differences. | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2004).  Title I Migrant Education Program, National Trends Report: 1998-2001. Doc # 2003-16  [US Department of Education] 

This report summarizes Title I, Part C, Consolidated Performance Report information for the Migrant Education Program (MEP) submitted by the states for the 2000-01 school year. Also presented are national trends on participation in the MEP for the three years spanning 1998-99 through 2000-01. In addition to providing a national description of the MEP, the report includes three appendices. Appendix A contains supporting tables for the narrative provided in the body of the report. Appendix B contains 2-page state profiles summarizing state trends and state-national comparisons. Appendix C lists states not providing MEP services by term and by year.  [This report was published by the Office of the Under Secretary's Policy and Program Studies Service. It was prepared for the U.S. Department of Education with ORC Macro. Cover title varies.] | [FULL TEXT]

Todd, Reese H.; Agnello, Mary Frances (2006).  Looking at Rural Communities in Teacher Preparation: Insight into a P-12 Schoolhouse  Social Studies, 97, 4. 

Rural education has been routinely neglected as one aspect of diversity teachers may encounter in their career. As teacher educators at a large public university, the authors seek to prepare students for teaching in a variety of environments. In their study, while rural field placements were not feasible, a structured field trip offered students an opportunity to learn about a rural school community and its resources. Field trips to rural school communities have provided data for preservice teachers to expand their knowledge and understanding of schools and to critically examine some of their assumptions about small schools. The authors state that including rural field trips in teacher preparation programs helps engage certification students in an often-over-looked aspect of diversity education. During these field trips, students from large, suburban, middle-class districts interact with people who engage in multiple activities to sustain a small town and its school, and confront stereotypes about rural environments.

Toldson, Ivory A. (2006).  Assessing the Impact of Family Process on Rural African American Adolescents' Competence and Behavior Using Latent Growth Curve Analysis  Journal of Negro Education, 75, 3. 

A study examines the long-term effects of a family process program on social and cognitive competence and aggressive and deviant behavior among rural African American adolescents. Results suggest that family processes influence the status and changes in adolescent competence and behavior, while analysis of covariant structures suggest that maternal depressive symptoms and financial problems indirectly arbitrate high-risk behavior among rural teenagers.

Tompkins, Rachel B. (2003).  Rural Schools and Communities Getting Better Together: Building on Assets.  State Education Standard, 4, 1. 

Research reports from multiple studies in dozens of states have shown there are advantages to learning in small schools. To take advantage of the assets of rural schools and small-town survival, new state policy directions will be necessary in finance, facilities, teacher pay, preparation, and professional and curriculum development.

Toner, Mark (2004).  Alone on the Range  Teacher Magazine, 16, 1. 

Harney School in western North Dakota had just one student left during its final year. Harney School is one of the rural schools across the Great Plains that have withered away over the decades as entire communities have faltered. In the 1920s, more than 4,700 one-room schoolhouses dotted North Dakota's countryside, often no more than a few miles apart so kids could walk to them each morning after working the fields. However, by the end of the century, only 10 remained. This article describes the one-on-one daily interaction between Daniel Kennedy Jr., Harney's last student, and her teacher, Shirley Hageness.

_____. (2001).  Tools for Entrepreneurship: Building New Economies in Rural America. Conference Proceedings (Clermont County, Ohio, September 17-19, 2000). 

A conference held in September 2000 focused on entrepreneurship as a means to create more and better jobs in Appalachia and rural America. This report summarizes the conference proceedings. In part 1, successful rural entrepreneurs identify their challenges and needs. Entrepreneurial success requires a supportive community environment, diverse sources of capital, strong networks of service providers, and quality employees (produced by the local school system or attracted by quality-of-life amenities). Characteristics that promote success are desire, understanding of risk, and total commitment. Part 2 looks at innovative strategies to support entrepreneurs. These are categorized in the areas of: (1) entrepreneurship education for youth and adults (training for youth in schools and online, lifelong learning in entrepreneurship, business partnerships for entrepreneurial training); (2) improved access to capital (microenterprise, angel financing, development venture capital, small business investment companies, bank investments); (3) business incubation and technical assistance, (4) e-commerce and technology, and (5) sector-based strategies for rural communities. Part 3 outlines recommendations in each of these areas. Appendices list the conference steering committee, profile presenters, describe the Appalachian Regional Commission's Entrepreneurship Initiative, and list 42 references and 28 resource Web sites. | [FULL TEXT]

Tooley, J.; Dixon, P. (2005).  An Inspector Calls: The Regulation of 'Budget' Private Schools in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India  International Journal of Educational Development, 25, 3. 

Research explored the regulatory regime, both 'on paper' and 'in practice', for private unaided schools serving low-income families ('budget' private schools), in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Interviews were conducted with school managers, teachers, parents, and senior government officials and politicians. A Supreme Court Judgement rules out profit-making in the schools, although, in practice, interviewees said this was widely ignored. At the state level, extensive regulations govern all aspects of a school's work. In practice, government officials reported, however, that only four regulations need to be met, but none of the recognised schools met more than two of these. In practice, there may be too few inspectors and a culture of bribery and corruption. A possible way forward is described, of private self-regulation, based on findings concerning parental accountability.

Torimiro, D. O.; Malik, M.; Kolawole, O. D. (2004).  Perceived Roles of African Rural Parents in Child Education and Development  Early Child Development and Care, 174, 7-8. 

The study investigated the perceived roles of African rural parents in child education and development. It examined among other things, some selected personal and socio-economic characteristics of parents and their level of role performance in the education and development of their children, and recommendations were made for enhancing adequate educational development of African children. The study was conducted in rural communities of Oyo State in Southwestern Nigeria with the use of an interview schedule to source information from 186 parents (and their children aged 11-18 years). The parents were randomly selected from each of the four zones (Oyo, Saki, Ibadan/Ibarapa and Ogbomoso) in the study area. Descriptive statistical techniques such as frequency counts and percentages were used to summarize the data. Pearson's correlation and Spearman's rank correlation analyses were used to determine the relationship between the socio-economic characteristics of parents and the level of development of the school child, and the congruence between role perception and role performance of parents. The study revealed among others, that variables such as educational level (r = 0.188), religion (r = 0.096), income level (r = 0.172), cosmopolitenness (r = 0.088) and membership of the Parents-Teachers' Association (r = 0.162) had a positive and significant relationship with their level of role performance. Also, a highly significant relationship was established between the level of education and development of a rural child and the level of role performance by the parents (r = 0.118).

Tovar, Laura Gomez; Martin, Lauren; Cruz, Manuel Angel Gomez; Mutersbaugh, Tad (2005).  Certified Organic Agriculture in Mexico: Market Connections and Certification Practices in Large and Small Producers  Journal of Rural Studies, 21, 4. 

Certification within organic agriculture exhibits flexibility with respect to practices used to demonstrate that a product meets published quality standards. This case study of Mexican certified-organic agriculture finds two forms. Indigenous smallholders of southern Mexico undertake a low-input, process-oriented organic farming in which certification is based upon extensive document review, group inspections, and assessment of on-farm capacity to produce organic inputs. More recently, northern Mexican large agribusiness producers have implemented certifications based upon laboratory testing and assessment of purchased inputs. To specify these differences, this article examines large and small producers in Mexico's organic agriculture sector based on a diagnostic census of Mexican organic agriculture in 668 production zones and field surveys in 256 production zones in which 28 indicators were analyzed. After comparing the organic cultivation and certification practices of large, agro-industrial, input-oriented private firms versus small, cooperatively organized, indigenous and peasant groups, we analyze the implications of this duality for certification frameworks. We argue (with Raynolds, L., 2004. The globalization of organic agro-food networks. World Development 32(5), 725-743; Gonzalez A.A., and Nigh, R., 2005. Smallholder participation and certification of organic farm products in Mexico. Journal of Rural Studies; DeLind, L., 2000. Transforming organic agriculture into industrial organic products: reconsidering national organic standards. Human Organization 59(2), 198-208) that the increasing bureaucratic requirements of international organic certification privilege large farmers and agribusiness-style organic cultivation and present the possibility of a new entrenchment of socio-spatial inequality in Mexico. While organic and fair trade agriculture has been touted as an income-generating production strategy for small producers of the Global South, our study suggests that Mexican organic agriculture reproduces existing social inequalities between large and small producers in conventional Mexican agriculture.

Townsell, Rhodena (2007).  Human Resource Management in Small Rural Districts: The Administrator's Role in Recruitment, Hiring and Staff Development  [Online Submission] 

The purpose of this article is to review the rural area administrator's role in the areas of teacher recruitment, hiring and staff development. State and Regional Policies reveal that these areas are chief among the concerns of rural school leaders (Johnson, 2005). The rural school administrator's role often requires him/her to become involved in every aspect of a school's functions. It is crucial for the rural administrator to understand the culture and expectations of the surrounding community in order to become successful in these endeavors (Helge, 1985). Teachers new to the district need to be given assistance in adapting to the day-to-day functions of their schools. They need specific information about the culture surrounding the school and the community. Seeking individuals most likely to be sold on the benefits of teaching in a rural school is recommended. Such individuals usually have rural backgrounds, personal characteristics or educational experiences that predispose them for life in a rural area (Collins, 1999). | [FULL TEXT]

Townsell, Rhodena; Kritsonis, William Allan (2006).  National Insight: A Look at Synnoetics in One African American Female's Journey to the Principalship  [Online Submission] 

This article discusses the principle of synnoetics as defined by Dr. William A. Kritsonis in the "Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning" as it chronicles the teaching career of Rhodena Townsell. Rhodena, an African American female, began her teaching career as an uncertified special education teacher in a small East Texas town. Rhodena became the principal of an elementary school in 1998. She is the first African American principal in her rural school district since integration. [Abstract modified to meet ERIC guidelines.] | [FULL TEXT]

Tregear, Angela; Arfini, Filippo; Belletti, Giovanni; Marescotti, Andrea (2007).  Regional Foods and Rural Development: The Role of Product Qualification  Journal of Rural Studies, 23, 1. 

Qualification schemes have become popular tools for supporting regional foods, yet little is understood about the impacts they have on the rural development contribution of such foods. Qualification processes may stimulate new networks and community actions, but they may also be incompatible with strategies of extended territorial development because of their foundation in theories of competitive advantage. To explore these issues, the evolution is traced of three cases of regional food production, where local actors pursue the opportunity to qualify products under EEC Regulation 2081/92. The results reveal, in practice, the different experiences that can evolve under the same qualification mechanism, and also how the consequences for rural development can vary. The paper concludes with analysis of factors influencing the involvement and behaviour of actors in regional food qualification, and what these infer for the rural development approach pursued.

_____. (2005).  Tribes and States Working Together: A Guide to Tribal-State Child Care Coordination  [US Department of Health and Human Services] 

The purpose of this guide is to increase the understanding of the rationale and benefits of States and Tribes working together to provide quality child care choices and services for the children and families they serve. The guide provides a description of Tribal sovereignty and the government-to-government relationship; an overview of the similarities and differences between State and Tribal CCDF programs; a discussion of the "Good Start, Grow Smart " Early Learning Initiative; and, examples of successful Tribal-State collaborative efforts. Lists of important Tribal, State, and Federal contacts are also included. [This booklet was developed in conjunction with the Child Care Bureau's annual National American Indian and Alaska Native Child Care Conference "Creating Positive Outcomes in Tribal Early Care and Education Settings" (11th, Salt Lake City, Utah, April 24-27, 2005).] | [FULL TEXT]

Troia, Gary A. (2004).  Migrant Students with Limited English Proficiency: Can Fast ForWord Language? Make a Difference in Their Language Skills and Academic Achievement?  Remedial and Special Education, 25, 6. 

This study evaluated the efficacy of the computer-assisted intervention program known as Fast ForWord Language? in a sample of migrant students in Grades 1 through 6 who were native Spanish speakers. Fast ForWord Language? combines intensive training in multiple receptive English language skills with adaptive acoustic waveform lengthening and amplification to purportedly accelerate the English language learning skills of children who are nonnative English language speakers. Students either were randomly assigned to a treatment or no-contact control condition or were matched on grade, English language proficiency, and nonverbal IQ. All students were assessed in five domains before and immediately after the 4- to 8-week intervention: (a) spoken English language proficiency; (b) oral language competency; (c) phonological awareness; (d) basic reading skills; and (e) classroom behavior. Except for performance on a measure of sight-word recognition, on which children in the treatment group achieved a significantly greater gain than those in the control group, changes in test scores from pretest to posttest were equivalent for the two groups. However, when students who were least fluent in spoken English in each group were compared, the children in the treatment group demonstrated superior gains in expressive language, sight-word recognition, and pseudoword decoding. Thus, Fast ForWord Language? had a substantial, albeit limited impact on the oral language skills and reading performance of migrant children in this study. However, due to methodological weaknesses and limited treatment fidelity, the study results must be interpreted cautiously.

Trotman, Janina (2006).  Women Teachers in Western Australian "Bush" Schools, 1900-1939: Passive Victims of Oppressive Structures?  History of Education Quarterly, 46, 2. 

Demography, distance, and the expansion of settlements created problems for the State Department of Education in Western Australia and other Australian states in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Educational administration in Canada and parts of the United States faced similar issues with regard to the provision of schools. A common response was the establishment of one-teacher rural schools, frequently run by young, and sometimes unclassified, female teachers. In the United States locally elected school boards were the primary source of regulation, but in late nineteenth-century Western Australia such local boards had been stripped of their powers and were answerable to the newly established, highly centralized Education Department, formal regulated teachers, the masculinized system of the Department, and its inspectorate. All the same, however, the local community still exerted informal controls over the lives of teachers working and living in small settlements. Historians Marjorie Theobald and Alison Prentice have argued that one of the key theoretical concerns in the historiography of women teachers is how to "evoke the oppressive structures" of the bureaucratic and patriarchal systems "while at the same time affirming that women were not the passive victims of that oppression." It is this concern, to balance agency and structure, which the guided the author's exploration of the experiences of a group of female teachers who taught in bush schools in the State of Western Australia during the first four decades of the last century. In particular, the author sought answers to three questions regarding the group: (1) Why and how did they become teachers?; (2) What was it like being a young woman teaching in a bush school?; and (3) How did those teachers interpret the bureaucratic practices and gendered discourses framing their work? The author used oral histories, as well as documents and secondary sources, to create a series of chronologically ordered textual "snap shots" of the women. This article is based on the resulting montage. The article starts with an exposition on the general context and a consideration of related historiographical issues. It then turns to the women's choice of teaching as an occupation before moving on to monitorships and Claremont Teachers' College where most took the Short Course for rural schools. The author then follows their journeys to first appointments, their lodgings, daily school life, and the infrequent, but nevertheless stressful, visits from inspectors.

Trouve, Aurelie; Berriet-Solliec, Marielle; Depres, Christophe (2007).  Charting and Theorising the Territorialisation of Agricultural Policy  Journal of Rural Studies, 23, 4. 

Against a background of contestation of European agricultural policy, the territorial dimension is one of the prominent factors in proposals for shaping new rules of public action. This situation has been brought about by shifts in the nature of the challenges facing farming and in society's expectations of it, but also by a change in the forms that public policy may take, which is challenging the hegemony of the nation states in matters of economic and social organisation. We attempt to characterise this territorialisation of public policy in agriculture from a regulationist standpoint and on the basis of research conducted in France. This involves three points: the renewal of decision-making procedures, the adaptation of public action to local specificities and the offsetting of market effects. Empirical findings show that these three factors are only marginal aspects of the changes that have come about in public action in farming: the territorial dimension is not at present the vector of any far-reaching change to the underlying principles and ground rules in this domain. However, these three emerging rationales do give a preview of new forms of regulation in the farming sector.

Truscott, Diane M.; Truscott, Stephen D. (2005).  Differing Circumstances, Shared Challenges: Finding Common Ground between Urban and Rural Schools  Phi Delta Kappan, 87, 2. 

The shared struggles facing urban and rural schools, such as changing cultural and linguistic classroom profiles, increased childhood poverty, and residential segregation patterns, influence financial inequities between people and communities thus contributing to gaps in academic achievement and teacher shortages in both settings. The socio-political context driving these conditions creates a need for urban and rural communities to join together in response.

Tuthill, Shirley J., Comp. (2000).  Innovative Approaches in Rural Education. Rural Information Center Publication Series, No. 72. 

This publication contains an annotated bibliography and information on journals, organizations, and resources related to new approaches in rural education. The annotated bibliography describes 97 journal articles, ERIC digests, research reports, programs descriptions and evaluations, government reports, conference papers, and grant guides. Most entries were published 1997-2000. Categories are: general; curriculum design, teaching methods, and teacher training; distance education; funding for rural education (including grant guides and funding sources); partnerships in schools; special needs (cultural diversity, at-risk students, special education); and technology. Contact information is given for 27 educational journals, as well as equity assistance centers, regional educational laboratories, regional technology in education consortia, and other organizations and resources relevant to rural education. | [FULL TEXT]

Tynan, Belinda; O'Neill, Marnie (2007).  Individual Perseverance: A Theory of Home Tutors' Management of Schooling in Isolated Settings  Distance Education, 28, 1. 

This article reports a study of parents' management of the education of primary school-aged children in their care in remote and rural locations of Western Australia. It presents a theory of the ways in which these parents, in the role of home tutors, "manage" the schooling of their children in a distance education regime in isolated settings. The home tutors in this study were mothers in families isolated by physical distance from centres in Western Australia, which usually provide educational, medical, financial, and retail services. In this environment, at the time of data collection, schooling was supported by print, that is, "sets" of learning materials, and by a regular schedule of interactive lessons through Schools of the Air when atmospheric conditions permitted. The conditions of outback Western Australia "present some of the worst conditions for use of electronic equipment" (Tomlinson, "Schooling in rural Western Australia: The ministerial review of schooling in rural Western Australia." Perth, Australia: Education Department of Western Australia, 1994, p. 91). Moreover, the nature of station life on isolated sheep or cattle properties (stations) is such that mothers frequently have multiple and sometimes conflicting roles (that is, cook, housekeeper, station hand, business partner, accountant, first aid officer, wife, mother, and teacher). This qualitative study was concerned with how parents "manage" their schoolroom work as "home tutors," using grounded theory techniques for gathering and analysing data. The term "manage" comes from the theoretical framework of symbolic interaction (Blumer, "Symbolic interactionism: Perspective and method." Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969), and in this article refers specifically to the ways in which the home tutors juggle their multiple roles.