Rural Education | F

Fabiansson, Charlotte (2006).  Being Young in Rural Settings: Young People's Everyday Community Affiliations and Trepidations  Rural Society, 16, 1. 

Geographical isolation creates a special context of obligations, reciprocal relationships, social network systems, inclusion and exclusion strategies, and a need to focus on maintaining services, employment opportunities and business infrastructures. This research explored Australian young people's role and everyday circumstances within a rural community context, and their involvement in community events as beneficiaries of what the communities have to offer and as active participants influencing the communities' youth agenda. The empirical data is based on a survey of 751 high school students between the ages of 14 and 21 years. The local government level and the community organisational level were explored to enhance the understanding of young people's life in rural communities. The findings underline females' community role in building social cohesion, being more inclusive in their social behaviour and actions to strengthen the existing community culture. Young males were the dominant users of community services, but showed less interest in promoting community well-being, thus demonstrating a higher level of self-reliance, expecting less help and support from their friends than young females.

Fabiansson, Charlotte (2007).  Young People's Perception of Being Safe--Globally & Locally  Social Indicators Research, 80, 1. 

Giddens explores, in "Modernity and Self-Identity," our preoccupation with risks in modern social life and the disparity between perceived risks and actual prevalence of life-threatening dangers [Giddens, A.: 1991, Modern and Self-Identity. Self and Society in Late Modern Age (Polity Press, Cambridge), p. 115]. Modern technologies have made global information accessible around the world; real time news communiques about unfolding situations are displayed directly into the home environment through television and the internet. Global issues and local events intermix, blurring worldwide issues and threats with local realities. This research explored the everyday life of young people in two Australian rural communities, their community affiliation, sense of belonging and feeling safe in the local rural community. The research was exploratory in nature and based on a survey of 751 young people aged between 14 and 21 years, all being students at local secondary high schools. Feeling safe was of concern for both female and male young people: females indicated a higher tolerance towards strangers and cultural diversity, but at the same time, they felt less safe in the local community. These findings are discussed in relation to a 1989-1990 study of 13- to 21-year-old urban Australian and Swedish young people. The study explored young people's experiences of scary events in mass media, in their home environment and among themselves. The findings signify the need for a holistic approach to identify social indicators to describe the grounds for young people feeling unsafe and the need to take into consideration local community circumstances, the global milieu and conflicts as portrayed in news, documentary and entertainment mass media.

Fairweather, John R.; Gossman, Peter (2004).  Question Style and Response Rates: Do People Prefer to Tick a Box or to Insert a Number When Filling out a Questionnaire?  Rural Society, 14, 1. 

An important goal for postal surveys is maximization of the response rate. A high response rate improves confidence in the results and minimises costs. Response rates are known to be declining as the use of surveying has increased, particularly when the telephone is used. Members of the public, and farmers, now face surveys for commercial purposes rather than for the public good, and this has lessened the appeal of responding to surveys. A variety of literature is available that considers survey response rates and factors that influence them. These factors are often considered in highly specialised and specific contexts, for example, for postal questionnaires, for telephone interviews and more recently comparisons between postal and electronic (e-mail or Internet) questionnaires. To consider all of the literature would be inappropriate and as a result these authors have focused on a range of general points that are relevant to postal surveys.

Falconer, John (2007).  The Economic Impact of Universities in Non-Metropolitan Areas of the Great Plains, USA  Industry and Higher Education, 21, 3. 

Public universities cite their economic impact to help justify state financial support, but the literature offers no comprehensive theory that can guide analysis of such claims. This research used qualitative methodology to complement the ubiquitous economic impact studies, and showed that mission, leadership and geography determine how public institutions impact on economic development and entrepreneurship in small towns on the Great Plains.

Falk, William F.; Hunt, Larry L.; Hunt, Matthew O. (2004).  Return Migrations of African-Americans to the South: Reclaiming a Land of Promise, Going Home, or Both?  Rural Sociology, 69, 4. 

Using samples of census data from the university of Minnesota Population Center's "Integrated Public Use Microdata Series" (IPUMS), we describe trends in African-American migration to the South across recent decades, and explore the applicability of the concept of "return migration" to various demographic patterns. Our findings suggest that the return movement contains multiple migration streams involving African-Americans of higher socio-economic status (compared with both origin and destination populations) moving to both urban and rural destinations. These patterns represent clear differences from the earlier 20th century's "Great Migration" of African Americans from South to North. The recent return migration streams suggest that the South may be replacing the North as a "land of promise" for some upwardly mobile African Americans, and may also reflect what Carol Stack (1996) has termed a "call to home" as a motivating factor shaping recent African American migration to the rural South.

Fannin, J. Matthew; Barnes, James N. (2007).  Recruitment of Physicians to Rural America: A View through the Lens of Transaction Cost Theory  Journal of Rural Health, 23, 2. 

Context: Many rural hospitals in the United States continue to have difficulties recruiting physicians. While several studies have examined some of the factors affecting the nature of this problem, we know far less about the role of economic incentives between rural providers and physicians. Purpose: This conceptual article describes an economic theory of organization called Transaction Cost Theory (TCT) and applies it to rural hospital-physician relationships to highlight how transaction costs affect the type of contractual arrangement used by rural hospitals when recruiting physicians. Methods: The literature is reviewed to introduce TCT, describe current trends in hospital contracting with physicians, and develop a TCT contracting model for analysis of rural hospital-physician recruitment. Findings: The TCT model predicts that hospitals tend to favor contractual arrangements in which physicians are full-time employees if investments in physical or other assets made by hospitals cannot be easily redeployed for other services in the health care system. Transaction costs related to motivation and coordination of physician services are the key factors in understanding the unique contractual difficulties faced by rural providers. Conclusions: The TCT model can be used by rural hospital administrators to assess economic incentives for physician recruitment.

Fanqing, Zeng (2005).  Clear up Misconceptions when Bringing in "Returnees"  Chinese Education & Society, 38, 3. 

Some returnees from abroad want to find work that would provide them with annual salaries of about 300,000 yuan when they return to China. However, employers back off from these potential employees as they cannot afford their high salary standards. In view of the difficulties that increasing numbers of returnees are encountering and that are cropping up in the course of bringing them in, the authors take a look at the reasons for the difficulties and clear up some misconceptions. These misconceptions include: (1) Hazy definition of "returnee" talent; (2) Lack of discrimination when bringing in returnees; (3) Bringing in returnees as window-dressing and because it is fashionable; (4) Belief that outside talent is so much better than local talent. The three things that employers need consider when hiring a "returnee" talent include the following: (1) One should have a clear aim when bringing in "returnee" talent; (2) One should bring in returnees and train native talent simultaneously; and (3) One should take care to retain returnee talent. [Translated by Ted Wang.]

Farmer, Thomas W.; Dadisman, Kimberly; Latendresse, Shawn J.; Thompson, Jana; Irvin, Matthew J.; Zhang, Lei (2006).  Educating Out and Giving Back: Adults' Conceptions of Successful Outcomes of African American High School Students from Impoverished Rural Communities  Journal of Research in Rural Education, 21, 10. 

This study examined community adults' conceptions of successful early adult outcomes for rural African American adolescents from 2 low-resource communities in the Deep South. Focus groups were conducted with parents, teachers, and community leaders. Parents also completed semistructured phone interviews. The focus groups identified 2 general types of successful outcomes. One type involved youth leaving their hometowns to attain their educations and establish careers and then reconnecting with the community (i.e., "giving back"). The 2nd type involved youth establishing themselves in the community as employed adults to support themselves and their families. Parents also described a variety of successful outcomes related to education, employment, living arrangements, and family and community involvement. Barriers to success included involvement with drugs and alcohol, peer pressure, and a lack of community-level supports (e.g., jobs, youth programs, extracurricular activities, educational opportunities).

Farmer, Thomas W.; Estell, David B.; Bishop, Jennifer L.; O'Neal, Keri K.; Cairns, Beverley D. (2003).  Rejected Bullies or Popular Leaders? The Social Relations of Aggressive Subtypes of Rural African American Early Adolescents  Developmental Psychology, 39, 6. 

Teacher assessments of interpersonal characteristics were used to identify subtypes of rural African American early adolescents (161 boys and 258 girls). Teacher ratings of interpersonal characteristics were used to identify popular and unpopular aggressive subtypes for both boys and girls. Unpopular aggressive youths did not have elevated levels of rejected sociometric status but were more likely to have lower levels of peer-perceived social prominence and social skills. Conversely, popular aggressive youths were more likely to be disliked by peers even though they were perceived by peers as socially prominent and socially skilled and were identified by teachers as highly involved in extracurricular activities. Both popular and unpopular aggressive youths tended to associate with others who had similar levels of peer-perceived popularity.

Farmer, Thomas W.; Irvin, Matthew J.; Thompson, Jana H.; Hutchins, Bryan C.; Leung, Man-Chi (2006).  School Adjustment and the Academic Success of Rural African American Early Adolescents in the Deep South  Journal of Research in Rural Education, 21, 3. 

This study examined the relationship between end-of-year grades and the academic, behavioral, and social characteristics of rural African American youth. Participants included 392 7th and 8th grade students from 2 rural middle schools in the south. Participants were African American and were from 2 communities that have child poverty rates exceeding 50% for public school students. Girls were more likely to have positive characteristics than boys. Academic, behavioral, and social difficulties were linked to low end-of-year grades, and positive characteristics were linked to high grades. Implications for supporting low-achieving African American students from low-resource communities are discussed.

Farmer, Thomas W.; Leung, Man-Chi; Banks, Jonathan; Schaefer, Victoria; Andrews, Bruce; Murray, Robert Allen (2006).  Adequate Yearly Progress in Small Rural Schools and Rural Low-Income Schools  Rural Educator, 27, 3. 

Adequate yearly progress (AYP) on No Child Left Behind criteria was examined for a randomly selected sample of districts that qualify for the Rural Education Achievement Program (REAP). The sample involved 10% of districts that were eligible for the Small Rural Schools Achievement (SRSA) program and 10% that were eligible for the Rural and Low-income Schools (RLIS) program. Based on district reports, nearly 80% of SRSA schools made AYP, 11% failed, and 11% did not have adequate data. For schools in the RLIS program, districts reported that 65% made AYP, 29% failed, and 6% did not report adequate data. The SRSA and RLIS samples had different patterns for the categories of students that did not make AYP. Also, SRSA and RLIS districts were differentially distributed across the United States. Implications for interventions are discussed.  | [FULL TEXT]

Farrell, Joseph P.; Mfum-Mensah, Obed (2002).  A Preliminary Analytical Framework for Comparative Analysis of Alternative Primary Education Programs in Developing Nations. 

There has been a quiet revolution growing in schooling in many parts of the developing world, particularly at the primary level. These mostly successful radical alternatives are little known among educators and scholars of education. In many cases, children who are considered the hardest to reach and teach accomplish curricular objectives not achieved in traditional formal schools. These programs also demonstrate that, contrary to popular belief, teachers are not obstacles to change but are the change agents. These teachers manage to develop or change their practice so fundamentally that they produce large learning gains among children thought to be unteachable. These successful change programs typically spread not by a centrally planned and mandated reform plan but by teachers learning from other teachers and sharing their personal practical knowledge and skills with each other. Administrative leadership often plays a critical role in these programs, but it differs from the traditional model in that it enables teacher learning and teacher-driven change, rather than controlling and regulating teaching. The question that arises is, how have these successes actually occurred in each case, given the history of failed attempts at large-scale educational reform? Four figures are presented as a preliminary effort to develop a useful set of categories for comparative analysis of these cases. It is hoped that they will be used to design a long-term research program that will enable us to avoid repeating past failures. | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2004).  Federal Aid to States for Fiscal Year 2003. FAS/03.  [US Department of Commerce] 

This report presents data on federal government aid to state and local governments by state and U.S. Outlying Area. Coverage is restricted to federal government expenditures for grants and other financial assistance to state and local governments for which data are available by state and outlying area. For fiscal year 2003 (October 1, 2002, to September 30, 2003), the statistics compiled cover $385.7 billion. The data is shown by federal agency and program whenever possible. Federal government aid to state and local governments includes the following: (1) Direct cash grants to state or local government units; (2) Payments for grants-in-kind, such as purchases of commodities distributed to state or local government institutions (e.g., School Lunch and Breakfast programs); (3) Payments to non government entities when such payments result in cash or in kind services passed on to state or local governments; (4) Payments to regional commissions and organizations that are redistributed to the state or local level; (5) Federal government payments to state and local governments for research and development that is an integral part of the provision of public services; and (6) Federal revenues shared with state and local governments. The examination and edit process the Census Bureau uses includes a comparison of reported data to information submitted for the prior year, and to budget amounts supplied by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). All grants data are reconciled by budget account and to budget figures that each federal agency is required to submit annually to OMB, in accordance with OMB Circular A-11. Discrepancies are brought to the attention of the reporting agencies and, where warranted, revisions are made. The OMB also provides assistance in the classification of grants and in ensuring compliance with the reporting requirements. Wherever possible, this report uses statistics representing actual expenditures of the federal government during the fiscal year. Each agency reports a program or project name and a budget account number to identify separately each project or budget account from which expenditures were made. Table 1 is an organized compilation, by department and agency and or program, of nearly 500 of these state by state expenditure reports. Appendix A, presents further detail about the individual expenditure programs that underlie the categories presented in Table 1.

Feinstein, Sheryl (2003).  A Case for Middle School After-School Programs in Rural America.  Middle School Journal, 34, 3. 

Asserts that in addition to providing safe places where students can develop a sense of belonging, after-school programs can enhance performance in the regular academic program of middle school students. Specifically reviews current research on the impact of after-school programs on academic achievement, work habits, interpersonal skills, and at-risk behavior prevention.

Feldmann, Doug (2003).  Curriculum and the American Rural School. 

This book begins by tracing the history of curriculum development and the subjugation of rural school districts to curriculum decisions made from afar and tailored to urban needs. Local and teacher interpretation of the formal curriculum gave rise to the enacted curriculum, or that which was actually taught in classrooms. But for rural schools, the most powerful aspect of curriculum is the hidden curriculum, which refers to the influence of community values and mores. In an effort to illustrate the mechanics of curriculum development in rural schools, a year-long study was conducted at Neosho High School in rural southern Indiana, which was considering a comprehensive reform of its curriculum. Data were gathered through questionnaires and interviews completed by 18 of the school's 19 teachers, document reviews, and observations. Low teacher salaries led to a high turnover rate of teachers and administrators, so that few felt confident in devoting much effort to producing a new curriculum. There was poor communication among teachers. The teachers generally perceived local school board members to be inflexible, unimaginative, and uneducated. While these factors may appear marginal to the concept of curriculum, they were interwoven into daily school life and unavoidably became part of the enacted curriculum. Five recommendations are based in the importance of encouraging and providing opportunities for curricular discussion among teachers and administrators. An appendix presents graduation requirements for Neosho High School.

Ferfolja, Tania (2008).  Beyond a Command Performance: Reflections on "Classmates" as a New Teacher Preparation Initiative  Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 36, 1. 

This paper reflects on a new pre-service teacher education initiative, "Classmates." "Classmates" is a collaboration between the University of Western Sydney (UWS) and the New South Wales Department of Education and Training (DET), South Western Sydney Region. "Classmates" aims to prepare pre-service teachers to work in challenging, hard-to-staff schools. These contexts typically have socially disadvantaged populations and annually experience teacher shortages and high teacher turnover, particularly amongst beginning and early career teachers. "Classmates" seeks to produce beginning teachers who are highly prepared for, confident and mentally and emotionally equipped to work in such environments. This discussion focuses on some of the positive attributes about the initiative, particularly its practicum structure; its nurturing of pre-service teachers to work in challenging contexts; and its strong focus on networking and development of ongoing support structures.

Ferguson, Gail M. (Anderson); Cramer, Phebe (2007).  Self-Esteem among Jamaican Children: Exploring the Impact of Skin Color and Rural/Urban Residence  Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 28, 4. 

This study investigates the extent to which two different models predict the relation of self-esteem to skin color and rural/urban residence among Jamaican children. To explain this relation, Crocker and Major's Self-protective hypothesis and Harter's Additive model were examined among 200 African-Caribbean children from rural (n=85) and urban (n=115) elementary schools in eastern Jamaica. Support was found for both of these models. Specifically, the Self-protective hypothesis predicted higher self-esteem among rural children and the Additive model predicted higher self-esteem among older children for whom self-identification and ideal self skin color were both White. Implications for Jamaican children are discussed followed by potential application to other children of African descent.

Fernandez, Cecilia (2006).  The Dimensions of the Right to Education for Inclusion Throughout Life  Convergence, 39, 2-3. 

The "education for inclusion" concept has made people more and more aware of the complex dimension of the inclusion/exclusion binomial. The lack of access to education, apart from being a violation of a human right, is the primary and most obvious form of exclusion. But, according to this author, there is also a symbolic exclusion, promoted through different cultural codes, that is based on other variables such as gender, race/ethnicity, social class, sexual orientation and identity, origin, and so on. The education systems of the twentieth century have homogenised, that is to say, they have not taken into account differences. They have not been able to understand or assume the multidimensionality of human beings. They have not understood yet that difference is what makes everyone equal. In this article, the author discusses the dimensions of the right to education for inclusion. She shares some ideas and reflections that have been developed by the Gender and Education Office (GEO) of ICAE. The purpose is to pose some questions and invite everyone to reflect on some concepts that the GEO is still trying to elaborate. The present context constantly pushes the GEO to act and find solutions and possible alternatives to problems and challenges, demanding their creativity and collective thinking. The author challenges educators, researchers, and activists who are concerned and interested in building a more just, equitable, inclusive world to participate in this reflection.

Fernandez, M. Isabel; Collazo, Jose B.; Bowen, G. Stephen; Varga, Leah M.; Hernandez, Nilda; Perrino, Tatiana (2005).  Predictors of HIV Testing and Intention to Test Among Hispanic Farmworkers in South Florida  Journal of Rural Health, 21, 1. 

Context and Purpose: This study examined the predictors of HIV testing and factors associated with intention to accept a free HIV test among 244 Hispanic migrant/seasonal farmworkers in South Florida. Methods: Time and space sampling procedures were used to recruit participants in public venues. Bilingual staff interviewed eligible respondents in these settings. Findings: Despite high rates of sexual risk, only 21% of respondents had been tested for HIV. The majority of those tested were females tested during prenatal care. In multivariable logistic regression analyses, being female (odds ratio [OR] = 3.73), having at least 12 years of education (OR = 4.46), earning more than $201 per week (OR = 2.76), and ever having used marijuana (OR = 3.31) were positively associated with having been tested for HIV, while not being documented (OR = 0.24) and having rated one's health as "very good" or "good" (OR = 0.42) were negatively associated with testing. The multivariable predictors of intention to accept a free HIV test were having visited a health care provider and/or an emergency room in the past 12 months (OR = 1.97), having been tested for HIV (OR = 2.36), preferring an HIV test that used a finger stick for specimen collection with results given in 30 minutes (OR = 4.47), and worrying "some" or "a lot" about getting HIV (OR = 3.64). Women (OR = 0.52) were less likely than men to intend to accept a free HIV test. Our findings highlight the importance of routinely offering HIV testing to sexually active individuals in high HIV prevalence areas. They also suggest the need to make testing more accessible to migrant and seasonal farmworkers.

Ferrell, Kay Alicyn; Wright, Charles; Persichitte, Kay A.; Lowell, Nathan (2000).  Capitalizing Distance Technologies To Benefit Rural Children and Youth with Visual Disabilities. 

The University of Northern Colorado developed a master's degree program to train specialists in the education of students with visual disabilities in the 14-state region of the Western Interstate Commission on Higher Education. The program is student-centered, stresses effective interaction between faculty and students and among students, and uses academic resources that address the multiple learning styles of students. Although multiple media and distance systems are used to deliver this program, the World Wide Web was chosen as a central learner and instructional resource for the conversion of each course for distance delivery. All courses have embedded syllabi, links to discipline and course standards, course requirements, descriptions of course activities, an asynchronous threaded discussion area, a course schedule, a dedicated class listserv, and a place for additional Web-based and other resources. Student support systems include an online admissions application, a student handbook, a Toll-Free phone number into the special education division office, a Webmaster who responds to technical problems, a CD-ROM with Web browser to load on home computers, and course and enrollment listservs. The project found that the design of distance education courses was expensive and needed much time and expertise; significant specialized design was required since most distance delivery technologies are visual; and extensive advance planning and faculty training were required. | [FULL TEXT]

Ferreyra, Cecilia; de Loe, Rob C.; Kreutzwiser, Reid D. (2008).  Imagined Communities, Contested Watersheds: Challenges to Integrated Water Resources Management in Agricultural Areas  Journal of Rural Studies, 24, 3. 

Integrated water resources management is one of the major bottom-up alternatives that emerged during the 1980s in North America as part of the trend towards more holistic and participatory styles of environmental governance. It aims to protect surface and groundwater resources by focusing on the integrated and collaborative management of land and water resources and interests on a watershed basis. In this paper, we draw on the policy network perspective on governance to shed light on the strengths and weaknesses of watershed-based processes of collaboration and integration for water quality protection in agricultural areas. The policy network perspective focuses on the interaction of actors, institutions and ideas within and among policy sectors to capture the intricacies of the policy process in increasingly complex and fragmented societies. Empirically, this study is based on the analysis of agro-environmental strategies for water quality protection in the Province of Ontario over the last 15 years. The contamination of a rural municipal well in Ontario in 2000, with its tragic consequences, translated into an ongoing pluralistic debate and strong attempts to fundamentally change the provincial policy style for addressing drinking water threats, especially agricultural pollution. Based on our analysis, we suggest that meaningful scales for collaboration and integration of land and water resources and interests at the local level, from the point of view of Ontario's agricultural policy network, do not currently include the watershed. We conclude that, instead of forcing watershed-based governance structures, the exploration and examination of more creative and flexible ways of linking watershed imperatives to existing socially and politically meaningful scales in agricultural areas of Ontario and elsewhere is warranted.

Fickel, Letitia Hochstrasser; Jones, Ken (2002).  The Tundra Is the Text: Using Alaska Native Contexts To Promote Cultural Relevancy in Teacher Professional Development. 

In summer 2000, the University of Alaska Anchorage and cooperating professional development schools organized four summer institutes to enhance teachers' cultural and subject matter knowledge. This dual focus was prompted by the new Alaska Content Standards and by guidelines for preparing culturally responsive teachers, developed by Alaska Native organizations. Each 2-week institute focused on a specific subject--science, mathematics, English/language arts, or social studies--as it related to the integrated theme of subsistence, and was taught in a rural Native village or a predominantly Native "hub town." Participants engaged in experiential learning activities, including learning from Native elders and other community members about traditional Native knowledge related to the subject matter. A culminating workshop brought all participants together to begin developing integrated curriculum units for the next school year. A qualitative study of the institutes' impact on teachers' learning and classroom practices combined naturalistic inquiry during the institutes and follow-up interviews with 16 of the 33 participants. The four institutes varied considerably in extent of participants' exposure to Native culture, but all institutes succeeded in creating communities of learners. Teacher interviews were analyzed in terms of three facets of culturally relevant teaching: social relations, conceptions of self and others, and conceptions of knowledge. All participants reported an expanded understanding of their subject matter. However, only teachers in the village institutes, who experienced cultural immersion in local Native contexts, made substantial changes in their classroom practices and approaches to Native students. | [FULL TEXT]

Filippov, V. M. (2005).  The Modernization of Russian Education  Russian Education & Society, 47, 3. 

These days many people are trying to assess what has been done in the past few years. The country is looking into the future and trying to map out the most optimal paths of its development. In this article, the author examines the main paths of development in the field of Russian Education. It is necessary to keep in mind the multi-plane character of the tasks to be accomplished, because of the large number of people who are going to school and teaching in the system of Russia's education. On the other hand, all coming innovations have to be oriented toward accomplishing the three main goals that have been mapped out in the Conception for the Modernization of Education: the expansion of its "accessibility," and improvement of the "quality" and the "effectiveness" of Russian education. In order to make the tasks that have to be accomplished more specific, it is worthwhile to formulate just what they are for each level of education. The author concludes that it is necessary to adopt a nationwide program in Russia whose implementation will activate the potential of all ministries and departments as well as civic organizations, business, and all of Russian society.

_____. (2002).  Final Report of the MLA Committee on Lifelong Learning: Helping Adults Return to Learning To Improve Their Employment Potential and Realize Their Career Goals. 

In 1999, the Committee on Lifelong Learning of the Ministry of Learning in Alberta, Canada, conducted a series of consultations on lifelong learning to identify ways of helping adults return to learning to improve their employment potential and realize their career goals. The committee received input from more than 450 Albertans in 14 rural and urban communities. The committee synthesized the input received during the consultation process into the following recommendations: (1) enhance the flexibility of learning opportunities; (2) promote a coordinated approach to recognition of prior learning and promote course/program transferability; (3) enhance community-based learning; (4) promote trades as a career choice; (5) provide more opportunities for applied learning; (6) encourage learning providers to collaborate for adult upgrading opportunities in adult settings; (7) improve adult literacy; (8) enhance provision of English-as-a-second language programming; (9) build confidence for adults to pursue lifelong learning; (10) increase awareness of adult counseling and career development services; (11) support funding for lifelong learning; (12) encourage government and employers to support lifelong learning; (13) achieve effective use of technology, including learning technologies; (14) encourage seniors' participation in lifelong learning; (15) develop a directory of learning opportunities and supports; (16) develop a policy framework for lifelong learning; and (17) communicate the importance of lifelong learning. | [FULL TEXT]

Finch, Nicole L.; Cowley, Kimberly S. (2003).  West Virginia Department of Education GEAR UP Project: Year 3 Baseline Seventh-Grade Survey and Ninth-Grade Follow-Up Survey (2002-2003). Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs. 

Project GEAR UP (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs) is a federally funded program focused on encouraging disadvantaged youth to have high expectations, stay in school, and take academically rigorous courses to prepare them for college. A 5-year GEAR UP grant in rural southern West Virginia funds academic and support services for seventh-grade students and their parents and follows those students for 4 years. This report summarizes findings from two sets of surveys administered in fall 2002: a baseline survey of incoming seventh-graders and their parents, and a follow-up survey of ninth-graders. Usable responses were received from 1,371 seventh-graders (68 percent return rate), 979 mothers, 660 fathers, and 1,301 ninth-graders (85 percent return rate). Overall, seventh-grade students had positive views of their academic abilities and efforts, and their parents' perceptions were similarly positive. Student and parent aspirations were high for students' postsecondary education. Students viewed parents and teachers as their best sources of information about college, but only a third of parents felt knowledgeable on the subject. Most ninth-grade students were satisfied with GEAR UP. Students' postsecondary plans had been influenced by program activities, particularly college campus visits. This group showed a 10 percent gain since seventh grade in their knowledge of college requirements and a 12 percent increase in having discussed academic requirements with family or school staff. However, only a third had held such conversations with school staff. Recommendations are offered for program improvement. Appendix presents survey questionnaires. | [FULL TEXT]

Finch, Nicole L.; Cowley, Kimberly S. (2003).  Fairmont State College GEAR UP Project: Year 4 Baseline Seventh-Grade Survey and Tenth-Grade Follow-Up Survey (2002-2003). Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs. 

Project GEAR UP (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs) is a federally funded program focused on encouraging disadvantaged youth to have high expectations, stay in school, and take academically rigorous courses to prepare them for college. A GEAR UP grant in rural north-central West Virginia funds academic and support services for seventh-grade students and their parents and follows those students for 4 years. This report summarizes findings from two sets of surveys administered in fall 2002: a baseline survey of incoming seventh-graders and their parents, and a follow-up survey of 10th-graders. Usable responses were received from 2,311 seventh-graders (85 percent return rate), 1,895 mothers, 1,236 fathers, and 1,812 10th-graders (63 percent return rate). Overall, seventh-grade students had positive views of their academic abilities and efforts, and their parents' perceptions were similarly positive. Student and parent aspirations were high for students' postsecondary education. Students viewed parents and teachers as their best sources of information about college, but only a third of parents felt knowledgeable on the subject. Most 10th-grade students were satisfied with GEAR UP. Students' postsecondary plans had been influenced by program activities, particularly college visits. This group had become more aware of college requirements since seventh grade, and about half had discussed academic requirements with family or school staff, compared to less than a fourth when in seventh grade. Recommendations are offered for program improvement. Appendix presents survey questionnaires. | [FULL TEXT]

Tough Choices begins not with a hypothesis, but rather a question. Statistically, the Center for Public Policy Priorities knows that low-income Texas families are engaged in a juggling act--struggling to survive on limited income. If the center could ask even a few of them how they manage, what would they tell them? What does it mean to earn too little? How can their experiences inform the decisions facing policymakers? Based on more than 30 hours of interviews that yielded over 160,000 transcribed words, Tough Choices features actual stories from six low-income working families in Austin and nearby rural communities, whom we interviewed for several months in 2004. These families spoke with the center openly and eloquently about the meaning of their experiences, providing us not just with insight into their lives, but the lives of more than half a million working poor families in Texas. They gave the data a voice. [Additional support for this research was provided by the Houston Endowment.] | [FULL TEXT]

Finger, Glenn; Rotolo, Carolyn (2001).  Telephone Teaching: Towards Constructivist Teaching for Rural and Remote Students. 

In 1998 the Charleville School of Distance Education (SDE) in Queensland, Australia, began using telephone teaching to replace high frequency radio as its means of communicating with rural and remote students. A study investigated the extent to which telephone teaching has contributed to the development of a constructivist teaching and learning environment. A literature review describes aspects of four generations of distance education and discusses previous studies of telephone teaching, the teaching strategies used in telephone teaching, and the benefits of the interactive teleconferencing environment. Results of the present study indicate that the 13 teachers at Charleville SDE were using teaching strategies and facilitating interactions that reflect the major tenets of constructivist philosophy. Teachers reported that their most utilized strategies were catering to the individual needs of students, making use of students' prior knowledge, and providing students with opportunities for reflection. Overall, teacher ratings of teaching strategies and learning activities used suggest that the SDE environment was strongly supportive of a constructivist teaching and learning paradigm. Teacher responses to the Community of Learners Scale indicate that telephone teaching supported a community of learners and fostered teacher-student and peer interaction. Details are provided on the incidence of specific teaching strategies and learning activities. | [FULL TEXT]

Fischer, David Jason (2005).  Workforce Intermediaries: Powering Regional Economies in the New Century  [Annie E. Casey Foundation] 

This report looks at three very distinct intermediary organizations--The Reinvestment Fund, a social-purpose lender and financier of community and economic revitalization in Philadelphia; Wisconsin Regional Training Partnership, a labor/management partnership in Milwaukee; and the Seattle Jobs Initiative, an agency that began its operations within Seattle's city government and later reconstituted itself as an independent nonprofit--that share both common organizational traits and operational goals. Despite the very significant differences among the three sites in regional economic and local political support, this report finds that the successful workforce intermediaries profiled here share several organizational strengths they could bring to bear as problems arose: proven credibility, access to leaders and key stakeholders in government and business, and a willingness to embrace pragmatism over ideology and make changes to programs and approaches as events dictate. The report also concludes that strong leadership and an organizational willingness to take risks were also key elements in their successes. | [FULL TEXT]

Fitzgerald, Stephanie (2006).  Intimate Geographies: Reclaiming Citizenship and Community in "The Autobiography of Delfina Cuero" and Bonita Nunez's "Diaries"  American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 30, 1. 

American Indian women's autobiographies recount a specific type of life experience that has often been overlooked, one that is equally important in understanding the genre and to develop ways of reading these texts that balance the recovery and recognition of the Native voice and agency contained within them with the processes of creation and the contexts of production that shape them. In this essay, the author considers collaborative autobiographies by two American Indian women, those of Delfina Cuero, a Kumeyaay woman born in 1900 in an "Indian house under an old grove of trees" in Jamacha, near San Diego, California, and of Bonita Nunez, a Poyomkowish or Luiseno of the Rincon band, born twelve years earlier and some forty-eight miles to the north. Coming from often overlooked tribal groups, Cuero and Nunez's texts probe the complex relationship of law and American Indian identity in the twentieth century. As a nonreservation Kumeyaay woman displaced from her traditional lands in the San Diego area to Baja California, Mexico, Cuero was unable to prove her US origin to the satisfaction of immigration officials. Nunez was adopted at birth from what was to become the Rincon Reservation by a wealthy white woman, and was forever separated from her birth family and tribal community. Through historical and political circumstances beyond their control, both women become relegated to the margins of not only history, but also Indian community and Indian identity. The author contends that Cuero and Nunez use life-writing as a tool to interrogate and secure their legal and social identity as Indian women during an era of tremendous social change. The personal narratives of Delfina Cuero and Bonita Nunez are but two examples from a genre that is as diverse and as complex as Indian America. At the same time, these narratives disrupt the expectations that readers and critics have come to assume for American Indian autobiography. Their life experiences depart from the "traditional" story line, and the setting is not the Great Plains or Southwest, but southern California and Mexico. Furthermore, their stories are of daily subsistence and survival in the margins of both Indian and US history. At the same time, their life stories force to confront crucial issues of Indian legal and cultural identity, and their effect on individual lives.

Flamsteed, Kate; Golding, Barry (2005).  Learning through Indigenous Business: The Role of Vocational Education and Training in Indigenous Enterprise and Community Development  [National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER)] 

This report explores the ways in which Indigenous Australians are learning through enterprise and small business development. It reveals that this learning will be more effective if it takes into account that Indigenous experience differs by location, with remote areas offering a significant challenge. Learning through Indigenous business is most effective where learning is tied to earning; the content is customised; it is carried out in parallel to real work; and is put into practice through employment in commercial business.  | [FULL TEXT]

Fleer, Marilyn (2004).  The Cultural Construction of Family Involvement in Early Childhood Education: Some Indigenous Australian Perspectives  Australian Educational Researcher, 31, 3. 

Socio-cultural theory has provided researchers with a powerful cultural tool for examining many taken-for-granted practices within early childhood education (Wertsch 1991). In drawing upon this tradition, this paper outlines a study that investigated the learning experiences of Indigenous Australian preschool-aged children at home, in the community and in schooling contexts. Each family was given a video camera and asked to record aspects of their child's life that they considered important for growing up in Australia today. Rogoff's (1998) three planes of analysis were used to examine the video and interview data gathered. The study documented important cultural understandings relevant to early childhood education from the perspective of a range of Indigenous families. | [FULL TEXT]

Fletcher, Paula C.; Skinner, Kate (2006).  Do Drinking Practices at University Differ among Students Coming from Urban and Rural Centers? A Preliminary Examination of Knowledge, Attitudes and Beliefs  College Student Journal, 40, 2. 

This exploratory study examined the influence of residential background and gender on university student drinking patterns. A questionnaire was distributed to 255 kinesiology and physical education students. Rural students (n=104) were more likely than urban students (n=151) to drink at outdoor parties or in vehicles during their first experience with alcohol. No significant differences were found between residential background and drinking motives, knowledge, or negative consequences concerning alcohol. Males, however, experienced significantly more negative ramifications, such as driving while under the influence, damaging property, breaking the law, injuring another party, and getting into a physical or verbal confrontation. This study supports the gender differences concerning the negative consequences of alcohol consumption, and adds to the information concerning rural-urban differences and alcohol use.

Florence, Joseph A.; Goodrow, Bruce; Wachs, Joy; Grover, Susan; Olive, Kenneth E. (2007).  Rural Health Professions Education at East Tennessee State University: Survey of Graduates from the First Decade of the Community Partnership Program  Journal of Rural Health, 23, 1. 

Context: To help meet rural Appalachian needs, and with initial support from the W.K. Kellogg Foundation, East Tennessee State University partnered with 2 counties to implement a health curriculum for nursing, public health, and medical students in a rural setting. The Community Partnerships Program 3-year longitudinal curriculum included theoretical, conceptual, and practice elements of the 3 disciplines incorporated into an experiential, inquiry-based, service-learning program. Interdisciplinary learning, problem solving, and reinforcement of career choices in medically underserved rural communities were emphasized. Purpose: To compare career choices, attitudes, and practice locations of Community Partnerships Program graduates with traditional graduates. Methods: Surveys were mailed to Community Partnerships Program and traditional program graduates matriculating from 1992 to 2002 (response rates 58/84 and 72/168, respectively). Findings: Community Partnerships Program graduates indicated a significantly greater interest in rural primary care, care for the underserved and interdisciplinary group collaboration, and were more likely to practice in rural locations than did their traditionally educated peers. Family, personal factors, and the availability of employment were major influences in determining the decision to choose a career in a rural location. Community Partnerships Program graduates indicated they were better prepared to work in interdisciplinary teams and were more likely to work in community-based programs and activities than did the traditional graduates. Conclusion: A program that enrolls students interested in rural health care and provides training in rural communities produces graduates who will practice in rural areas.

Flores, Margaret M.; Kaylor, Maria (2007).  The Effects of a Direct Instruction Program on the Fraction Performance of Middle School Students At-Risk for Failure in Mathematics  Journal of Instructional Psychology, 34, 2. 

The current exploratory study investigated the effects of a Direct Instruction program implemented with middle school students identified as at-risk for failure in mathematics. Direct Instruction has typically been implemented with students with disabilities in separate special education settings. However, this study examined the extent to which this kind of instruction could be integrated into a general education setting. The study took place in a rural middle school in which the majority of the students were from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. The participants were seventh grade students who had failed the state-mandated annual assessment at least twice and who were identified as at-risk for failure. The students participated in fourteen lessons of the Direct Instruction fraction program. Student progress was assessed using curriculum-based pre and post-tests and the data were analyzed using a t-test. Participation in the program resulted in significant increases in fraction skills. The students also demonstrated increases in appropriate and on-task behavior during the intervention.

Floysand, Arnt; Jakobsen, Stig-Erik (2007).  Commodification of Rural Places: A Narrative of Social Fields, Rural Development, and Football  Journal of Rural Studies, 23, 2. 

One of the most significant recent elements of restructuring in rural areas is the transition from an economy based on agricultural production to an economy based on the countryside as a form of commodity. In this transition process, different narratives or images of an area are produced to promote villages and other places in the countryside as commodities. Much of the literature takes it for granted that outsiders control the processes of branding rural areas, but our case study demonstrates that the producers (as well as potential consumers) of the countryside as a commodity can be insiders within a community. In this paper, we demonstrate how a local football club can take a leading role in the process of commodification of rural places in the post-modern era. Football clubs are presented as commodities to attract investors, sponsors, and expertise from private businesses. In both commodification of rural places and football, the challenge is to construct narratives or images that correspond to the pre-existing expectations of consumers, whoever they might be. Our theory-informed empirical analyses illustrate the way in which the Norwegian football club Sogndal Football has been instrumental in the restructuring of the Sogndal community.

Fluharty, Charles; Scaggs, Bill (2007).  The Rural Differential: Bridging the Resource Gap  New Directions for Community Colleges, 2007, 137. 

Rural communities have fewer financial resources, making the community colleges located in these regions central to economic development. This chapter reviews the importance of recognizing the rural differential via policy changes and offers strategies to close the resource gap between rural and nonrural community colleges.

Fogarty, Mark (2007).  Commitment to Building Prosperous Nations: Tribal Colleges Take Aim against Poverty  Tribal College Journal of American Indian Higher Education, 18, 3. 

The article reports that Tribal colleges and universities in the United States seek to promote culturally appropriate development and to improve the financial situations not only of their students but the tribal matrix they come from. A study by the American Indian Higher Education Consortium and the Institute for Higher Education Policy identifies various ways that tribal colleges impact their communities: direct spending and employment, workforce development, business attraction, small business and entrepreneurship development, technology transfer, leadership, and communication linkages.

Fogg, Piper (2007).  Art off the Beaten Track  Chronicle of Higher Education, 54, 9. 

When the nearest metropolis is hundreds of miles away, cultural enrichment is not always easy to come by. Arts programs have evolved to reflect the needs of such regions, providing a rich diet for culture-starved residents. Some colleges have created choirs or theater groups that welcome local participation, while others have developed elaborate festivals with a strong sense of place. This article describes how four rural and small-town community colleges are helping to shape an arts scene of their own.

Forbes, Dorothy A.; Morgan, Debra; Janzen, Bonnie L. (2006).  Rural and Urban Canadians with Dementia: Use of Health Care Services  Canadian Journal on Aging, 25, 3. 

The purpose of this research was to examine the characteristics of older Canadians with dementia (compared to those without dementia), their use of health care services, and the impact of place (rural/urban) on use of services. Andersen and Newman's Behavioural Model of Health Services Use (1973) guided the study. A cross-sectional design used data from the Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS) Cycle 1.1 (N 1/4 49,995 older Canadians; those with dementia 1/4 313). Results indicated that among Canadian females between the ages of 50 and 64, those with dementia were more likely than those without dementia to live in rural areas. Among females 80 years of age and over, those with dementia had higher levels of education and income than those without dementia. In addition, a higher proportion of white than of visible minority Canadians was afflicted with dementia. The results further suggest that Canadians with dementia primarily required support services and that they were more likely than persons without dementia to report that their health care needs were unmet. It is recommended that publicly funded national home care programs be expanded to ensure that the supportive services needed by this population are available.

Forgasz, Helen J. (2004).  Equity and Computers for Mathematics Learning: Access and Attitudes  [International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education] 

Equity and computer use for secondary mathematics learning was the focus of a three year study. In 2003, a survey was administered to a large sample of grade 7-10 students. Some of the survey items were aimed at determining home access to and ownership of computers, and students' attitudes to mathematics, computers, and computer use for mathematics learning. Responses to these items were examined by several equity factors (gender, language background, socio-economic status, geographic location, and Aboriginality), by grade level, and by mathematics achievement self-ratings. Equity factors were more salient with respect to computer ownership than with attitudes. Attitudes to computers for mathematics learning were more strongly related to attitudes to computers than to attitudes to mathematics. [For complete proceedings, see ED489632.] | [FULL TEXT]

Fox, Sandra J. (2001).  American Indian/Alaska Native Education and Standards-Based Reform. ERIC Digest. 

This digest summarizes potential benefits of standards-based reform and areas of concern for schools serving American Indian and Alaska Native students. Content standards may benefit Indian education by creating a more common curriculum, providing a focus for improving teaching and learning, and promoting a more holistic, active-learning sort of pedagogy. Various states have sought input from Indian educators about the appropriateness of standards for Indian students or have allowed development of culturally relevant local standards. Nevertheless, the potential benefits of standards will not be realized if the instruction that Indian students receive is inadequate or if the standards are irrelevant to Indian students. Standards-based reform emphasizes testing what is taught. States that use performance-based assessment and multiple measures can avoid or reduce cultural bias in testing. Unfortunately, most states continue to rely on standardized, norm-referenced, or multiple-choice tests, which are thought to be biased. Basing decisions about promotion or graduation on inadequate testing measures may prove extremely harmful to Indian students. Holding schools accountable for students' learning is a plus for Indian education, but students in ineffective schools may also suffer. One recommendation is to base accountability on student and school gains rather than on comparisons with other students and schools. Federal and state governments play a crucial role in helping low-performing schools meet standards. | [FULL TEXT]

Fox, Sandra J., Ed. (2006).  Connecting Cultures & Classrooms. K-12 Curriculum Guide: Language Arts, Science, Social Studies. Indian Education for All  [Montana Office of Public Instruction] 

This curriculum guide is but one of the resources that the Montana Office of Public Instruction is providing to help teachers implement Indian Education for All. The philosophy of this document promotes the use of Indian literature as an instructional tool. There are no textbooks presently for including aspects of Montana Indian cultures into the K-12 school curricula, but there is a body of Indian literature written and/or reviewed by Indian people that can supplement regular textbooks and help to teach state standards as well as provide knowledge about Indian people and their views in regard to academic content. This guide is patterned after the Creating Sacred Places curriculum series of the National Indian School Board Association. In those books, Indian literature and activities are tied to content standards outlined by the Midcontinent Regional Educational Laboratory and to American Indian Standards developed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. In this document, Indian literature (mainly relating to Montana and Montana tribes) and activities have been matched to the state standards and the Essential Understandings Regarding Montana Indians. Appended are: (1) Essential Understandings Regarding Montana Indians; (2) Literature Resources; and (3) Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence (CREDE) Standards for Effective Pedagogy. [This project was done in partnership with the National Indian School Boards Association.] | [FULL TEXT]

Fram, Maryah Stella; Miller-Cribbs, Julie E.; Van Horn, Lee (2007).  Poverty, Race, and the Contexts of Achievement: Examining Educational Experiences of Children in the U.S. South  Social Work, 52, 4. 

This article considers issues of educational inequality in the U.S. South from a social work/social justice perspective. After a review of existing literature and discussion of cultural versus structural explanations for race and socioeconomic status gaps in academic achievement, findings are presented from a study examining child-, classroom-, and school-level factors that influence academic achievement among public school children in the South. Although a sizeable minority of southern children attend schools that are segregated along racial and socioeconomic lines, and although these schools are different in various aspects of educational environment, once family structure, parental characteristics, the use of ability grouping, and rural school location were taken into account, no influence of race on achievement remained. Implications for social work policy and practice are discussed.

Frank, Russell (2003).  When Bad Things Happen in Good Places: Pastoralism in Big-City Newspaper Coverage of Small-Town Violence  Rural Sociology, 68, 2. 

An examination of big-city newspaper coverage of violent crimes in small towns during a recent five-year period reveals a remarkable degree of uniformity in the language reporters use to characterize life in these places. The cliches signal an underlying set of stereotypes of small-town life: They are safe, close-knit communities where bad things are "not supposed to happen." Yet the point of the stories is that bad things do happen. Drawing upon culturological and sociological approaches to the study of news production, this paper argues that the small towns described in the news are symbolic landscapes that reflect a pastoral orientation among journalists and in the culture at large.

Frankham, Jo (2006).  Network Utopias and Alternative Entanglements for Educational Research and Practice  Journal of Education Policy, 21, 6. 

"The network" has achieved a form of "institutionalized utopianism" in the recent past and is posited as a neo-liberal solution to social scientific researchers and education practitioners learning with and from one another. This paper first outlines why the metaphor of the network is so persuasive. It goes on to problematize some of the key concepts deployed in the field and to ask what is currently inadequately addressed in the discourse of "learning networks". It describes how a series of disconnections may be more helpful in understanding how "learning networks" might "work". The paper concludes with questions about the proliferation of the discourse of networks and the marketization of education and commodification of knowledge.

Franks, J. R.; Mc Gloin, A. (2007).  Environmental Co-Operatives as Instruments for Delivering Across-Farm Environmental and Rural Policy Objectives: Lessons for the UK  Journal of Rural Studies, 23, 4. 

This paper assesses the potential of environmental co-operatives (EC) to deliver environmental benefits and an integrated and strengthened rural economy in the UK. It is based on research into Dutch EC, which have about 10,000 members, of which a quarter are non-farmers. The paper details the benefits EC have delivered to their members, the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, the environment and the rural economy using evidence drawn from interviews with farmer and non-farmer members, farmer non-members, policy makers and academics connected with seven EC. It pays particular attention to the benefits and disadvantages of allowing non-farmer membership. It is argued that EC would be a valuable additional instrument to help deliver landscape-scale environmental, regional and rural policy objectives. However, Dutch EC have received important political and, particularly in their start-up stage, financial support, and similar support would be needed in the UK--it is argued this may be more readily available if UK EC will offer non-farmer membership. Appropriate support could be provided through developments to the Environmental Stewardship Scheme's higher level tier, by safeguarding and extending the spirit of the LEADER plus programme (which explicitly supports collective action) to the delivery of environmental benefits, and/or by encouraging the development of locally based social enterprises.

Freed, Craig D.; Samson, Mary (2004).  Native Alaskan Dropouts in Western Alaska: Systemic Failure in Native Alaskan Schools  Journal of American Indian Education, 43, 2. 

The number of Native Alaska secondary students choosing not to complete high school is of great concern to educators and Native communities. In this study, schools in small communities throughout western Alaska were observed while teachers and dropouts were interviewed concerning their perceptions of the education process. It became very clear that there was something fundamentally wrong with the systems of education in western Alaska. Teachers and administrators frequently leave after a very short time. Students leave the school systems in large numbers and communities are not happy with the education their young people receive. In some cases, the school systems do not need an incremental change approach to education--they need to examine an entirely new paradigm of schooling.

Freeman, Eric (2005).  No Child Left Behind and the Denigration of Race  Equity and Excellence in Education, 38, 3. 

Race is the social expression of power and privilege, and new racial configurations take shape in conjuction with alterations in the political economy of American society. This article examines the relationship of educational policy to the emergence of a new conception of racism that has appeared in the post-civil rights era: colorblind racism. Colorblind policies are championed as fair and just, congruent with the egalitarian aspirations of the Civil Rights Movement that culminated in the passage of the Civil Rights Act in 1964. In rendering invisible the salience of race, the goal of colorblindness is to make advantage appear as a logical consequence of the natural order of things. The non-recognition of race as a form of political power tacitly enables the colorblind ideal to steer education policy toward the reinforcement of the dominant culture as the norm and the maintenance of hegemonic social arrangements. The insinuation of colorblindness into the culture of educational policymaking, and of No Child Left Behind in particular, suggests that substantive educational restructuring may not be part of the nation's racial agenda.

Freeman, Melissa L.; Conley, Valerie Martin; Brooks, Gordon P. (2006).  Successful Vertical Transitions: What Separates Community College Transfers Who Earn the Baccalaureate from Those Who Don't?   Journal of Applied Research in the Community College, 13, 2. 

Many students who first enroll in a community college express an interest in transfer and baccalaureate attainment. However, few actually attain the baccalaureate degree. Various risk factors have been shown to exert strong and significant effects on transfer and subsequent baccalaureate degree attainment, yet few studies have included the impact of geography on transfer success. In this study, we examine factors, including socio-demographic characteristics, geographic characteristics, and personal goals on baccalaureate attainment among students who began their academic career at the community college.

Freeman, Tierra M.; Anderman, Lynley H. (2005).  Changes in Mastery Goals in Urban and Rural Middle School Students  Journal of Research in Rural Education, 20, 1. 

Little is known about differences in middle school students' motivation and the motivational climate provided across rural and urban settings. We examined change in middle school students' personal mastery goals and perceptions of mastery goal structures in their classes. Results showed students' personal mastery goals and perceptions of mastery goal structures increased over time. Rural students, as compared to urban students, reported a sharper increase in personal mastery goals. Seventh-grade mastery goals were not completely explained by students' 6th-grade mastery goals or perceptions of classroom mastery goal structures; therefore, we examined contextual data from teachers, principals, and direct classroom observations. The importance of a stable and orderly environment, at both the school and classroom levels, is highlighted.

Freeman, Victoria A.; Walsh, Joan; Rudolf, Matthew; Slifkin, Rebecca T.; Skinner, Asheley Cockrell (2007).  Intensive Care in Critical Access Hospitals  Journal of Rural Health, 23, 2. 

Context: Although critical access hospitals (CAHs) have limitations on number of acute care beds and average length of stay, some of them provide intensive care unit (ICU) services. Purpose: To describe the facilities, equipment, and staffing used by CAHs for intensive care, the types of patients receiving ICU care, and the perceived impact of closing the ICU on CAH staff and the local community. Methods: A semistructured interview of directors of nursing at CAHs that provide intensive care services. Results: Two thirds of CAHs that provide intensive care do so in a distinct unit. Most have continuous or computerized electrocardiography and ventilators. Other ICU equipment common in larger hospitals was reported less frequently. Nurse:patient ratio ranged from 1:1 to 1:3, and some or all nursing staff have advanced cardiac life support certification. Most CAHs admit patients to the ICU daily or weekly, primarily treating cardiac, respiratory, gastrointestinal, endocrine, and drug- or alcohol-related conditions. ICUs are also used for postsurgical recovery. Respondents felt that closure of the ICU would be burdensome to patients and families, result in lost revenue, negatively impact staff, and affect the community's perception of the hospital. Conclusions: Intensive care services provided by CAHs fall along a continuum, ranging from care in a unit that resembles a scaled-down version of ICUs in larger hospitals to care in closely monitored medical-surgical beds. Nurse to patient ratio, not technology, is arguably the defining characteristic of intensive care in CAHs. Respondents believe these services to be important to the well-being of the hospital and of the community.

Freese, Walt (2007).  The Business Case for Sustainability  New Directions for Institutional Research, 2007, 134. 

Sustainability is an evolving and often misused word in business. As the landscape changes in terms of how resources are evaluated, so does the context of sustainability. In the most general terms, Ben & Jerry's looks at sustainability from the perspective of the social and environmental resources. Improper use of the term has been called "green washing," because many companies with less than enlightened environmental practices have taken advantage of the lack of clarity around the meaning of sustainability and created their own self-serving meanings. Meanwhile, they continue to wreak havoc on the environment and ignore core issues relative to social and economic justice. So how does Ben & Jerry's look at it? In this article, the CEO of Ben & Jerry's, a leading corporate practitioner of sustainability, describes how his company pursues sustainability, what it brings to an organization, and the critical role played by measurement.

French, Donald P. (2007).  Finding Time through Specialization  Journal of College Science Teaching, 36, 4. 

One of the major concerns in higher education is the need for more accountability on the part of institutions so that members of the public know what they are getting for their tax or tuition dollars. There has been increased call for institutions of higher education to improve their efficiency if they are to remain affordable. In this article, the author discusses how specialization can become the solution to achieving efficiency. He explains how specialization can help in time management and provide quality education for all students.

French, Kathryn; Hinds, John; Stenhoff, Donald M.; Slocum, Tim (2003).  Comparative Evaluation of Alternative, Distance, and Traditional Teacher Preparation Student Teachers. 

Researchers at Utah State University's special education department compared the performance of student teachers on dimensions that reflected pedagogical practices known to promote effective teaching of special education students. This study evaluated and compared dimensions of special education teaching performance among student teachers from three teacher preparation programs: traditional on-campus, distance education, and alternative preparation. The university developed a comprehensive performance evaluation tool using the Special Education Student Teaching Evaluation Form as the foundation for the new instrument. The student teaching evaluation consists of 19 items. An observation sheet collects frequency counts, student seating arrangement, and duration data. A lesson plan is obtained from the student teacher at the beginning of the observation. Five items are observed during the new material and guided practice phase of the student teacher's lesson: sufficient opportunities to respond, uses appropriate correction procedures, sufficient rate of reinforcement, pupil engagement, and uses class time efficiently. Pupil engagement and uses class time efficiently are also observed during independent practice, as is active monitoring. After the observation, student teachers complete an interview on various aspects of the lesson and instruction. Researchers plan observe and evaluate all student teachers at least once before the end of the semester, conduct reliability checks on 20 percent of the observations, and analyze the data over the summer. | [FULL TEXT]

Freshwater, David (2001).  Delusions of Grandeur: The Search for a Vibrant Rural America. Staff Paper. 

Rural development is rarely defined and there is no clear definition of what the development process intends to accomplish. The nature of the larger economy in which rural places must operate has changed in ways that reduce the relative advantage of most rural areas and have left them struggling to define new economic functions. The political process--the last great hope of rescue for too many rural people and places--is reorganizing in ways that will disappoint most rural communities. Economic development options for rural places are few. Those with high amenity value may become retirement or recreation destinations; places with good road and rail connections may capture a role as distribution centers; and the growing solid waste industry relies upon rural areas to accept waste. Many success stories in rural America are, upon closer examination, not really examples of rural development but of urban expansion. If rural America is to be competitive with other developed regions, it will have to improve the skill levels of the local labor force, and rural places will have to integrate themselves into markets. As the key factor in the future competitive position of states, education has become too important to be left to local control, and the independence of rural school boards is declining. Development entails specialization and scale effects, and rural places need to find ways to accomplish them without being captured by an urban center. To achieve scale effects and maintain local control, rural places will have to cooperate within some functional economic and political structure. | [FULL TEXT]

Friedland, Billie L.; Walz, Lynn (2001).  Pre-Teachers Evaluate University-School Partnerships for Curriculum Adaptation and Access for Students with Disabilities in Rural Classrooms. 

A study assessed perceptions of 90 preservice teachers about the quality of their participation in practica experiences in a consultation and curriculum adaptation course collaboratively developed and supervised by a small midwestern university and rural school personnel. Data were collected over three semesters in the form of written responses followed by a large-group discussion. Findings indicate that preservice teachers considered the curriculum and materials adaptation practica to be valuable experiences in which they performed and were treated professionally. Preservice teachers reported making numerous and varied adaptations to accommodate real students in authentic and difficult learning situations. However, many consulting teachers did not indicate or apply previous knowledge of consultation or collaboration. Even at the end of the semester, student teachers remained weak in their understanding of the consultation model. Although it became evident that adaptations apply to all subject areas, many preservice teachers expressed a need for increased presentation of ideas for adaptations. There was an apparent lack of connection between the student teacher evaluation responses and outlined course units and topics, as several areas of course content were not addressed in their responses. In addition, student teachers found it disjointed and disconcerting to have one course instructor and another faculty member supervise the practica, or even two section instructors and one practica supervisor. | [FULL TEXT]

Friedland, Billie L.; Walz, Lynn M. (2003).  Evaluating Teaming Skills in a Rural University Clinical Experience: Continuation across Two Summers. 

There is a national trend toward using teacher teams and collaboration to solve various learning and behavioral problems. Teacher collaboration is necessary because of teacher shortages, especially in special education, and increasing diversity in student needs. Collaboration is especially important in rural schools because of the need to share scant resources. During two summers, a rural preparation and training program for preservice and in-service special educators was conducted. The program consisted of three courses--methods of instruction, learning theories in special education, and assessment. To fulfill the practicum component, students worked with children with academic, social-emotional, or behavioral disabilities who were attending a summer school provided by the university. One student from each course served on a collaborative-consultative planning team. Assessment of the team process was conducted via an observation checklist, a self-evaluation survey, and instructor ratings of individual performance. For both summers, all teams progressed through the five stages of consultation: establishing the team, identifying the problem, generating interventions, implementing interventions, and evaluating the effectiveness of interventions. Across all three instruments, preparedness and participation were high. All but two students left with a good grasp of team process. Pre-service teachers were surprised to discover how many strategies, behaviors, and skills could be taught in such a short time and how strategies that were implemented worked in such a short time. | [FULL TEXT]

Friedland, William H. (2002).  Agriculture and Rurality: Beginning the "Final Separation"?  Rural Sociology, 67, 3. 

When is a farm a farm? When is rural rural? Has the issue of the rural-urban continuum returned? Decades ago rural sociology worked itself into two blind alleys: rural-urban differences and attempts to define the rural-urban fringe. Although these conceptual problems eventually were exhausted, recent developments in California raise the possibility of a phoenix-like revival, although in new form. Three cases--the success of Napa Valley winemaking and the urban crowding that has accompanied it, the explosion of wine grape acreage in neighboring Sonoma County as demand for premium wine grapes has increased dramatically, and an antibody-manufacturing goat "farm" in Santa Cruz County--have spurred community controversies and are now generating debates over the definition of "agriculture," whether agriculture is rural, and "When is rural rural?"

Frisch, Larry; Plessinger, Alexander (2007).  Fatal Passenger Vehicle Crashes with At Least 1 Driver Younger than 15 Years: A Fatality Analysis Reporting System Study  Journal of Rural Health, 23, 2. 

Context: A small number of fatalities continue to occur due to motor vehicle crashes on highways in which at least 1 passenger vehicle (automobile, van, or small truck) is driven by a child younger than 15 years. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to extend previous work suggesting that such crashes occur frequently in the Southern states and have relatively high rates in rural areas in the South and Great Plains. Methods: This study utilizes data for the 5-year period 1999-2003 from the National Highway Transportation Safety Administrations online Fatality Analysis Reporting System. All cases were identified in which at least 1 conventional passenger vehicle in a fatal crash was being driven by a child younger than 15 years. Findings: During the 5-year period, 350 fatal crashes occurred with at least 1 driver younger than 15 years involved. Twenty-one of these drivers were licensed (11) or driving with a learners permit (10). A total of 987 individuals in 419 vehicles were involved in these crashes, and 402 deaths resulted (1.16 deaths/crash). These crashes occurred primarily in Texas, Florida, Arkansas, and Arizona, but the highest rates per 100,000 children were found in North and South Dakota and predominantly in a band of Intermountain and Plains states. There was a strong correlation between crash rates and several measures of rurality. Conclusions: Crashes involving young, largely unlicensed, drivers account for about 70 deaths yearly.

Fry, Sara Winstead (2006).  A Technology Supported Induction Network for Rural Student Teachers  Rural Educator, 27, 2. 

Student teaching is a challenging period for preservice teachers as they make the transition from preparation to practice. Support from mentor teachers and university personnel can make this time easier, helping preservice teachers successfully integrate educational theory into their practice. Because of logistical, financial, and personnel limitations, many student teachers with rural placements receive inadequate support. The Technology Supported Induction Network (TSIN) was developed to address these issues by providing support and ongoing professional learning opportunities for preservice teachers through distance technology. A qualitative case study was used to investigate the TSIN's impact on elementary level student teachers. Results indicate that the TSIN's two primary components, a discussion board and compressed video sessions, served different supportive roles. Recommendations for future programs utilizing technology as a way to enhance the preparation of student teachers or provide induction for inservice teachers in rural schools are also discussed. | [FULL TEXT]

Fuligni, Andrew J.; Zhang, Wenxin (2004).  Attitudes Toward Family Obligation Among Adolescents in Contemporary Urban and Rural China  Child Development, 75, 1. 

A sense of obligation to support, assist, and respect the family was examined among approximately 700 urban and rural 10th- (M=16.6 years) and 12th- (M=18.9 years) grade students in the People's Republic of China. Urban male adolescents reported a weaker sense of family obligation than did rural male adolescents and both urban and rural female adolescents. Only children did not differ from those with siblings in terms of their attitudes toward family support and respect. A sense of family obligation was generally associated with more positive family relationships and a higher level of academic motivation among Chinese adolescents. Discussion focuses on how the shift to a market economy may influence adolescents' identification with the family in contemporary China.

Funnell, Robert (2008).  Tracing Variations within "Rural Habitus": An Explanation of Why Young Men Stay or Leave Isolated Rural Towns in Southwest Queensland  British Journal of Sociology of Education, 29, 1. 

An explanation is presented about what keeps young men in isolated rural areas. The purpose is to contribute a concrete analysis of habitus as used in educational research. Inadequacies in application of the term are demonstrated in research conducted on school and work by the author in a rural town. An analysis of changes from labour-intensive work on grazing properties and practices of kangaroo and pig hunting are linked to a form of capital to demonstrate proof of a man's ability as a good worker. A form of "rural habitus" is illustrated in an interview with a young man about to enter the workforce. It is argued that dispositions to working on rural properties and in the bush have become enduring forms of capital. They are resistant to school capital and the means through which young men prove their worth as adults in changing rural labour markets.