Rural Education | E

Eads, Al (2003).  Rural Education Today.  State Education Standard, 4, 1. 

Challenges facing rural schools include consolidation, teacher quality, equitable funding, and adequate facilities. The president of the National Rural Education Association presents his views on these issues based on visits around the country.

Eady, Charlotte King; Zepeda, Sally J. (2007).  Evaluation, Supervision, and Staff Development under Mandated Reform: The Perceptions and Practices of Rural Middle School Principals  Rural Educator, 28, 2. 

The perspectives of three rural middle school principals as they implement Georgia's A Plus Education Reform Act of 2000 were investigated in this study. A case study approach was used, employing both within case and cross case analyses. Three interviews were conducted with each of the three participants, resulting in a total of nine interviews. Five perspectives emerged from the data: (1) Evaluation of teacher effectiveness can be indicated only by the results of standardized tests, (2) Supervision consists of classroom visits and observations, (3) Ruralness affects how staff development is delivered, (4) Lack of funding limits the effectiveness of the staff development component of teacher evaluation, and (5) Implementation of A Plus adversely affects the traditional middle school schedule. | [FULL TEXT]

Easley, II., Jacob (2005).  The Political Tension of Education as a Public Good. The Voice of a Martin Luther King, Jr., Scholar  Education and Urban Society, 37, 4. 

This article discusses the inherent political nature of educational systems and the tensions that arise between this political nature and the agenda to promote education as a public good. Current debates about the efficacy of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) are used to illustrate this point. Although there is promise in the goals of NCLB, the author contends that issues regarding equitable educational funding within states and civil liberties for all students must continually remain in the forefront for this act to actualize education as a public good.

Eastman, Brenda J.; Bunch, Shelia Grant (2007).  Providing Services to Survivors of Domestic Violence: A Comparison of Rural and Urban Service Provider Perceptions  Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22, 4. 

Although there is a considerable body of knowledge about domestic violence, a limited proportion focuses on domestic violence in rural settings. Using a nonprobability purposive sampling technique, 93 providers of domestic violence services from rural and urban localities in North Carolina and Virginia were located and asked to complete a self-administered survey soliciting provider perceptions about service consumers, the general public, themselves, and inter- and intra-agency issues. Significant differences were observed between rural and urban providers about service consumer needs and experiences, perceptions about the general public, area resource availability, agency funding, provider training, and worker safety. Implications of these differences are discussed.

Eddy, Pamela (2007).  Grocery Store Politics: Leading the Rural Community College  Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 31, 4. 

Rural America is characterized by decreasing populations, increasing poverty, limited economic growth, and limited access to cultural events. The context of the rural environment makes leading colleges in these locations different than in larger, more urban regions. The research reported here investigated the experience of rural community college leaders to determine more about the phenomenon of how they constructed their leadership given their rural context. Findings indicate less anonymity for rural community college leaders, a reliance on relationship building to accomplish goals, and a smaller local peer network to aid in reflecting upon the duties of the president.

Eddy, Pamela L.; Murray, John P. (2007).  Strategizing for the Future  New Directions for Community Colleges, 2007, 137. 

This chapter reviews the strategies described in this volume that rural college leaders can use to address the issues and challenges their institutions face.

Eden, Sally; Bear, Christopher; Walker, Gordon (2008).  Understanding and (Dis)trusting Food Assurance Schemes: Consumer Confidence and the "Knowledge Fix"  Journal of Rural Studies, 24, 1. 

This paper uses evidence from focus groups with consumers in England to consider how consumers understand and evaluate a range of proxies or intermediary organisations that offer assurance about food and consumer products, particularly voluntary certification schemes. This addresses the current concern in developed economies about providing information in order to reconnect consumers with food producers and to support moves towards more local, fairly traded and sustainable production. However, we show that such a "knowledge fix" approach of providing information may not reconnect consumers so easily. Participants found it particularly difficult to work out what certification involved and what kinds of organisations were providing assurance. They built vernacular typologies and comparative judgements that did not necessarily identify or prioritise "independent" third-party certification as the gold standard, not least because of the practical difficulties of monitoring complex supply chains, and expressed confusion and scepticism about how well food assurance schemes could work in practice. Our results therefore problematise the knowledge fix urged in the literature and emphasise instead the need to better understand how consumers make sense of assurance information in different contexts.

Eder, Donna J. (2007).  Bringing Navajo Storytelling Practices into Schools: The Importance of Maintaining Cultural Integrity  Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 38, 3. 

This article examines storytelling practices among Navajos as one example of a non-Western approach to education. The article discusses two stories--one regarding the perspectives of Navajo storytellers concerning the importance of the context of storytelling practices and the other about the research process that led to these perspectives. Eight storytellers were interviewed about storytelling practices in the past and those they would like to see in the future. Implications of the importance of key storytelling practices for Navajo education as well as for changes in Western approaches to schooling are presented.

Edgeworth, Kathryn; Eiseman, John (2007).  Going Bush: International Student Perspectives on Living and Studying at an Australian Rural University Campus  Journal of Research in Rural Education, 22, 9. 

While there is a significant body of literature concerned with the experience of international students arriving to live and study at urban university campuses, very little of this research addresses the issue of overseas students' transition to rural areas. What issues do international students face when they arrive to live and study in rural places, and how is their experience of university life different from that of their metropolitan counterparts? This paper draws on data from in-depth interviews with non-English-speaking-background students from Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, and the Middle East to identify the sorrows and successes of international students arriving to live and study at a small university campus in rural Australia. It explores how place, rurality and diversity work in combination to construct learning and life experiences at a small rural learning institution. It also examines students' connectedness with rural life and meanings, and engages with rurality as a site for educational innovation.

Ediger, Marlow (2005).  Old Order Amish Philosophy of Education.  Education, 125, 3. 

The Old Order Amish in the societal arena provides a philosophy of education which is unique and worthy of study.They tend to have a minimal of problems when making comparisons with other sub cultures in society. Drug abuse, pregnancy among unwed mothers, crime, alcoholism, thievery, and other forms of anti-social behavior appear to be at a very low level. This is not to say it is a utopia, since any culture has problems to solve. Approximately, one fourth of their young people tend to leave the Old Order Amish community. A more recent major problem is to determine a vocation other than farming which traditionally has been a main stay among the Old Order Amish (OOA). Low farm prices for agricultural crops and livestock has forced them to readjust life styles to new jobs and vocations without sacrificing core values such as a strong family life style whereby the mother and father together with their children are closely bonded in working together as a unit until the offspring is old enough to secure work independently.

Edmondson, Jacqueline; Shannon, Patrick (2003).  Reading First Initiative in Rural Pennsylvania Schools.  Journal of Research in Rural Education, 18, 1. 

Case study of a poor, rural Pennsylvania school district's experience with the Reading First initiative illustrates how the No Child Left Behind Act confines districts to a few federally prescribed, "scientifically proven" curricula that ignore local conditions. Sanctioned schools are negatively labeled but receive inadequate funding, setting the stage for failure and ultimately privatization.

Edo, Mengistu; Ali, Kedir; Perez, Marisol E. (2002).  Ethiopian Community Education Initiatives: Communities, NGOs and Government Partnerships in Action. 

In Ethiopia, Save the Children has been working with other nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), community-based organizations, and the government to develop projects that focus on nonformal strategies for improving access to basic education in marginalized communities. Common to all projects are a partnership approach, collaborative capacity building, and innovations to address the unreached. Partnerships are characterized by two-way communication, response to community-defined needs, and support of community-created initiatives. Partners have developed curricula relevant to the lifestyle of rural pastoralist communities. Capacity-building strategies include training, workshops, organized experience sharing, and experiential learning. Primary participants are community leaders, partner NGO members, local education officials, school administration and staff, parents, and teachers. Continuous training enables partners to plan and implement their own projects. Child-centered, active learning approaches are emphasized. Innovations to reach marginalized groups include training community-selected teachers, including communities in curriculum development, flexible school schedules, home-based schooling for girls, separate latrines for girls and boys, and employing female teachers to provide female role models for girls. Program successes have caused the government to consider nonformal strategies more seriously, as indicated by the ministry of education's sponsorship of a conference on working with NGOs. An appendix presents sample capacity-building sessions and objectives. | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2002).  Education for Rural Development in Asia: Experiences and Policy Lessons. FAO/UNESCO Seminar (Bangkok, Thailand, November 5-7, 2002). 

More than half of the world's population, and more than 70 percent of the world's poor live in rural areas where hunger, illiteracy, and low school achievement are common. Education in rural areas is crucial for achieving sustainable development. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and UNESCO's International Institute for Educational Planning recently completed a comprehensive international study of education for rural development, focusing on constraints to achieving Education for All (EFA) in rural areas, improving educational access and quality, and strengthening the links between education and rural development. To continue this discourse, a seminar involving nine Asian countries was held in Bangkok in November 2002. Panel presentations and plenary discussions focused on five themes: addressing rural challenges to EFA, enhancing food security through education and training, the role of education in targeting rural poverty, changes in rural labor markets, and the impact on education of HIV/AIDS in rural areas. This proceedings summarizes sessions on each theme; presents group findings on rural community participation in local development, experiences in multisectoral coordination and programs, and approaches to institutional change; and includes five selected contributions. These are: (1) "Contributions of Education to Alleviating Rural Poverty" (Yu Fuzeng); (2) "Supporting Rural Education for Poverty Reduction: Issues and Approaches" (Chris A. Spohr); (3) "Responding to the Transformation of Rural Labour Markets: Implications for Education and Training" (Samuel T. Mancebo); (4) "Landcare in the Philippines: Developing Capacities of 'Farmers of the Future' and Their Communities" (Tom Vandenbosch); and (5) "Food for Education and Rural Development" (Anette Haller). A seminar program and lists of participants and papers presented are included.

_____. (2004).  Education Statistics Quarterly. Volume 5, Issue 3, 2003. NCES 2005-609  [National Center for Education Statistics] 

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) fulfills a congressional mandate to collect and report "statistics and information showing the condition and progress of education in the United States and other nations in order to promote and accelerate the improvement of American education." The "Quarterly" offers an accessible, convenient overview of all NCES products released in a given period. Each issue includes: short publications (those less than 15 pages in length) in their entirety, executive summaries of longer publications, descriptive paragraphs of other NCES products, as well as notices about training and funding opportunities. Following a "Note from NCES" by Peggy G. Carr discussing the need for comparative information on student performance in large urban areas, challenges faced by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Trial Urban District Assessment (TUDA), and kinds of data provided by TUDA, articles presented in this issue include: (1) The Nation's Report Card: Reading 2002, Trial Urban District Assessment (Anthony D. Lutkus, Arlene W. Weiner, Mary C. Daane, and Ying Jin); (2) The Nation's Report Card: Writing 2002, Trial Urban District Assessment (Anthony D. Lutkus, Mary C. Daane, Arlene W. Weiner, and Ying Jin); (3) Trial Urban District Assessment Snapshot Reports: Reading 2002 and Writing 2002 (National Center for Education Statistics); (4) Invited Commentary: NAEP's Trial Urban District Assessment: An Experiment Worth the Effort (Michael Casserly); (5) The Nation's Report Card: Writing 2002 (Hilary R. Persky, Mary C. Daane, and Ying Jin); (6) Public High School Graduates Who Participated in Vocational/Technical Education: 1982-1998 (Karen Levesque); (7) Getting Ready to Pay for College: What Students and Their Parents Know about the Cost of College Tuition and What They Are Doing to Find Out (Laura J. Horn, Xianglei Chen, and Chris Chapman); (8) High School Guidance Counseling (Basmat Parsad, Debbie Alexander, Elizabeth Farris, and Lisa Hudson); (9) Overview and Inventory of State Education Reforms: 1990 to 2000 (David Hurst, Alexandra Tan, Anne Meek, and Jason Sellers); (10) Work First, Study Second: Adult Undergraduates Who Combine Employment and Postsecondary Enrollment (Ali Berker and Laura Horn); (11) Postsecondary Attainment, Attendance, Curriculum, and Performance: Selected Results from the NELS:88/2000 Postsecondary Education Transcript Study (PETS), 2000 (Clifford Adelman, Bruce Daniel, and Ilona Berkovits); (12) A Descriptive Summary of 1999-2000 Bachelor's Degree Recipients 1 Year Later: With an Analysis of Time to Degree (Ellen M. Bradburn, Rachael Berger, Xiaojie Li, Katharin Peter, and Kathryn Rooney); (13) Distance Education at Degree-Granting Postsecondary Institutions: 2000-2001 (Tiffany Waits and Laurie Lewis); (14) Third International Mathematics and Science Study 1999 Video Study Technical Report, Volume I: Mathematics (Jennifer Jacobs, Helen Garnier, Ronald Gallimore, Hilary Hollingsworth, Karen Bogard Givvin, Keith Rust, Takako Kawanaka, Margaret Smith, Diana Wearne, Alfred Manaster, Wallace Etterbeek, James Hiebert, and James Stigler); and (15) Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study: 2000-01 (B&B:2000/01) Methodology Report (Stephanie Charleston, John Riccobono, Paul Mosquin, and Michael Link). Listings and information on data products, other publications, and funding opportunities conclude the issue. (Individual articles contain tables, figures, and references.) [For "Education Statistics Quarterly" Volume 5, Issue 2, 2003, see ED482960.] | [FULL TEXT]

Edwards, Joellen B.; Wilson, Jim L.; Behringer, Bruce A.; Smith, Patricia L.; Ferguson, Kaethe P.; Blackwelder, Reid B.; Florence, Joseph A.; Bennard, Bruce; Tudiver, Fred (2006).  Education for Rural Practice--Practice Locations of Graduates of Family Physician Residency and Nurse Practitioner Programs: Considerations within the Context of Institutional Culture and Curricular Innovation through Titles VII and VIII  Journal of Rural Health, 22, 1. 

Background: Studies have described the aggregate results of federal funding for health professions education at the national level, but analysis of the long-term impact of institutional participation in these programs has been limited. Purpose: To describe and assess federally supported curricular innovations at East Tennessee State University designed to promote family medicine and nurse practitioner graduate interest in rural and underserved populations. Methods: Descriptive analysis of a survey to determine practice locations of nurse practitioner graduates (1992-2002) and graduates of 3 family medicine residencies (1978-2002). Graduates' (N = 656) practice locations were documented using specific federal designations relating to health professions shortages and rurality. Results: Overall, 83% of family medicine residency and 80% of nurse practitioner graduates selected practice locations in areas with medically underserved or health professions shortage designations; 48% of family physicians and 38% of nurse practitioners were in rural areas. Conclusions: Graduates who study in an educational setting with a mission-driven commitment to rural and community health and who participate in curricular activities designed to increase their experience with rural and underserved populations choose, in high numbers, to care for these populations in their professional practice.

Edwards, M. Craig (2004).  Cognitive Learning, Student Achievement, and Instructional Approach in Secondary Agricultural Education: A Review of Literature with Implications for Future Research  Journal of Vocational Education Research, 29, 3. 

The "coin of the realm" in education today is student achievement, its measure, and its relationship to school accountability. An almost singular emphasis is placed on student achievement in "core" academic areas. The constructs of cognitive learning, student achievement, and instructional approach in agricultural education have been studied by researchers; however, little has been reported about it in the context of today's educational priorities. This study reviews research describing the kind of cognitive learning that ought to be occurring in secondary agricultural education and suggests implications for future research about cognition, achievement, and instruction. Future inquiries should involve interdisciplinary partnerships to identify practices that hold promise for supporting student learning across the curriculum if delivered effectively in the context of secondary agricultural education. Moreover, it is recommended that the integration of effective curricula and instructional approaches from other disciplines into secondary agricultural education and opportunities for reciprocity be studied further.

_____. (2000).  Effective Schooling in Rural Africa Report 4: Frequently Asked Questions about Effective Schooling in Rural Communities. 

The challenges of making rural schools more effective vary with different types of rural conditions. But typically these challenges might include any of the following: teacher shortages, lack of facilities, isolation, HIV/AIDS and related social stigma, war crises and displaced populations, multigrade and shift teaching, administration of small schools and heavier workloads, working with local communities, difficult housing and sanitary conditions, safety concerns (particularly for female teachers and students), and resource acquisition issues. This document presents guidelines related to specific questions collected from international agency workers in rural education projects, with a focus on the African region. Topics reflect the complexity of both rural challenges and the interrelated inputs and processes associated with effective schooling. Wherever possible, examples are linked to information in the Case Study Briefs (report 3 of this series). Sections cover the developmental stages of education systems, factors that contribute to learning and educational quality, capacity for educational management, effectiveness of school leadership, alternative ways to undertake school supervision functions, impact of HIV/AIDS on education, recruiting teachers to work in rural areas, incentives for teachers, teacher resource centers, effective teacher inservice programs, training teachers for refugee situations, multigrade instruction, using interactive radio to reach remote areas, use of self-instructional materials, supplementary reading materials, language of instruction, participation of various stakeholder groups, increasing efficiency within school facilities, improving access to primary school, insufficient numbers of students, children coming from conflict situations, promoting girls education, and nomadic populations. | [FULL TEXT]

Egelund, Niels; Laustsen, Helen (2006).  School Closure: What Are the Consequences for the Local Society?  Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 50, 4. 

School closures have been common in rural areas since the middle of the last century, when new and modern schools replaced small old-fashioned schools with only one or two classrooms. Due mainly to the industrialisation of farming and hastened by the merging and globalisation of industry, the last 50 years have seen a migration of people from rural areas to large towns. This has caused closures of schools built in the 1950s and 1960s, which had been the pride of and a sign of development in local societies. These closures most often give rise to heated debate, the main cry of protest being that the closure of the school is a death-blow to the local society. The present study is based on a qualitative analysis performed in 2003 of 30 Danish school closures in the period 1990-1999. The results show that school closure in itself does not have the devastating effects mentioned in the debate. The main problem for local societies is a lack of people and thus lack of human capital, and in remote areas and on small islands school closure is a sign of a community in the final phase of the death process, not a cause.

Egley, Robert J.; Jones, Brett D. (2004).  Rural Elementary Administrators Views of High-Stakes Testing  Rural Educator, 26, 1. 

This study examines how rural elementary school administrators perceive the effects of high-stakes testing in comparison to suburban and urban elementary administrators. High-stakes testing had a greater impact, both positively and negatively, on rural administrators than on their counterparts in suburban and urban schools. Specifically, the positive effects were that rural administrators were more motivated by the testing program to do a better job, found the test results more useful in assessing teachers, and found the test results more useful in meeting the academic needs of students. The negative effects were that rural administrators felt more pressure than urban administrators to improve test scores and found their school rating to more negatively affect their ability to attract high quality teachers than administrators in suburban schools.  | [FULL TEXT]

Ehman, Lee H.; Bonk, Curtis J. (2002).  A Model of Teacher Professional Development To Support Technology Integration. 

During the 1998-1999 school year faculty from Indiana University's School of Education (Bloomington) began in in-service teacher education program, Teacher Institute for Curriculum Knowledge about Integration of Technology (TICKIT). TICKIT was designed to foster the thoughtful infusion of educational technology into the K-12 curricula of teachers in rural school systems within southern Indiana. This paper describes this program, and then presents an experience-based model upon which it currently rests. TICKIT annually typically includes cohorts of four to six teachers from five school districts. Important factors include classroom-based curriculum projects, teacher choice, systematic reflection on practice, reports by teachers of their work to other professionals, and impact by teachers on others in their schools. The paper concludes with lessons learned from the program during its first four years of operation. A summary of TICKIT teacher projects is tabulated. The TICKIT Individual Project Action Plan (January 5, 2001) is appended.   | [FULL TEXT]

Eick, Charles J.; Ewald, Mary Lou; Richardson, Velma B.; Anderson, Karen (2007).  Building a Leadership Network Supporting Science Education Reform in Rural East Alabama  Science Educator, 16, 1. 

The authors argue that leadership networks when comprised of regional stakeholders including university faculty, school system administrators, and teacher leaders can begin to work together towards common reform goals.

Eiken, Renee (2004).  Our School, Our Community  School Arts: The Art Education Magazine for Teachers, 103, 9. 

Spring Grove Public School is the center of a small, rural community, where most activities revolve around or take place in the school. With this idea in mind, the author of this article describes how, as an art teacher, she set out to create a project that would bring this to the attention of not only the students creating it, but also to the public. The logical path was to create some type of large, highly visible public art. In order to provide the most exposure, the mural was placed in the school cafeteria. This article describes the process as these students learn to use subjects, themes, and symbols that demonstrate knowledge of contexts, values, and aesthetics that communicate intended meaning in artworks.

Eisenhart, Margaret (2005).  Hammers and Saws for the Improvement of Educational Research  Educational Theory, 55, 3. 

This article examines different conceptions of causation and their implications for understanding educational phenomena and conducting educational research. Specifically, I discuss four research designs for pursuing questions about causation in education. Two of these research designs take a variance approach to causation (that is, they attempt to show correlations between earlier events and subsequent ones), while the other two take a process approach (that is, they attempt to show a demonstrable sequence of events by which one variable flows into or leads to another). The point of the discussion is to illustrate, first, their respective strengths and, second, their necessary interdependence. Ultimately, I argue that just as both hammers and saws are needed to build a good house, both variance and process approaches are needed to build a good understanding of causation in education.

Elands, Birgit H. M.; Praestholm, Soren (2008).  Landowners' Perspectives on the Rural Future and the Role of Forests across Europe  Journal of Rural Studies, 24, 1. 

Contemporary changes in rural Europe have been characterised by the contrasting terms of rural modernisation and productivism versus restructuring and post-productivism. This study investigates how different categories of owners of farm and/or forestland in 16 case study areas in eight European countries perceive future development. Landowners' prospects for change are investigated on both the locality and enterprise level. Special attention is given to the role of forestry as a potential future development perspective. The results reveal that both restructuring and modernisation perspectives are important to many landowners. Moreover, a polarisation seems to be developing between a minority of full-time farmers with progressive farming prospects and the vast majority of landowners with declining prospects or little dependency on primary production. More importantly, the research reveals a third employment perspective, which did not have any specific content apart from the social security of having employment opportunities in the locality. Also at the enterprise level, farmers anticipate both restructuring and modernisation practices, even on the very same property. The study proves that it is not only part-time, hobby and retired farmers that are engaged in "restructuring" activities, but also full-time farmers. As regards the role of forests, the majority of landowners do not interpret forests in an economic development context, but as green infrastructure important to the local quality of life. It can be concluded that forests are closely related to restructuring thinking among landowners. Future perspectives differ from one European rural area to another, dependent on local conditions and problems. More importantly, however, this research reveals that modernisation--restructuring thoughts and practices of landowners are manifold and heterogeneous in all types of rural areas across Europe.

Eller, Ron; Jensen, Jane McEldowney; Robbins, Rebecca L.; Russell, Jack; Salant, Priscilla; Torres, Vasti; Viterito, Arthur (2003).  Opportunities in Place: National Assessment of the Rural Community College Initiative. 

The Rural Community College Initiative (RCCI), supported by the Ford Foundation, sought to energize distressed rural communities and the local colleges that serve them. Through a structured process of guided intervention, 24 colleges and their communities learned how to build new partnerships, adapt new ideas to local needs, and implement collaborative college/community projects. This publication documents the RCCI program and process in four parts: (1) Background, which presents the origins of RCCI and the conceptual framework and study design; (2) The Initiative and its Context, which details the program as it was applied in individual colleges and communities; (3) Findings from the Assessment, which assesses whether or not RCCI achieved its main goals; and (4) Conclusion, which summarizes the program findings. The findings of the study indicate that RCCI succeeded in providing a framework for these communities to move forward, although there was not enough time for RCCI to strongly affect policy changes that address power imbalances in the community. RCCI did take small steps in the confidence-building process that would lead to more engaged institutions and more substantive changes in emerging leaders.

Ellerbeck, Edward F.; Bhimaraj, Arvind; Perpich, Denise (2004).  Organization of Care for Acute Myocardial Infarction in Rural and Urban Hospitals in Kansas  Journal of Rural Health, 20, 4. 

One in 4 Americans lives in a rural community and relies on rural hospitals and medical systems for emergent care of acute myocardial infarctions (AMI). The infrastructure and organization of AMI care in rural and urban Kansas hospitals was examined. Using a nominal group process, key elements within hospitals that might influence quality of AMI care were identified, including personnel, equipment, organizational systems, and quality improvement activities. These elements were included in a survey of 45 rural and 12 urban Kansas hospitals. Though emergency 911 systems were widely available in both urban and rural communities, paramedics and advanced cardiac life support were less likely to be available in rural communities. Few rural hospitals were capable of emergent catheterization, angioplasty, or coronary artery bypass surgery; cardiologists, though readily available by phone, were rarely available on-site. Nevertheless, most rural ambulances could not bypass local hospitals. Most rural hospitals transferred the vast majority of their patients to urban medical centers within an average distance of 78 miles. Standardized protocols were used for emergent AMI care in 67% of urban and 62% of rural hospitals. Hospitals included aspirin in 53% and beta-blockers in 28% of either protocols or standing orders. Although faced with more limited resources, some rural hospitals, like their urban counterparts, have implemented protocols to address emergent care of AMI patients. Nevertheless, many of these protocols omit crucial aspects of AMI care. Rural and urban hospitals should jointly develop systems that assure consistent, rapid delivery of AMI care.

Ellis, Bronwyn; Cooper, Nancy; Sawyer, Janet (2001).  Bridging Studies: An Alternative Pathway to University for Rural Australians. 

Bridging courses are courses that prepare adult and other nontraditional students for undergraduate study. Focus groups examined the strengths, limitations, and impacts of bridging courses offered at a rural university campus in South Australia. A survey based on their responses was returned by 12 current students in bridging courses and 2 who had withdrawn. Bridging study increased respondents' confidence and self-esteem. The gaining of new friendships was significant, but the demands of study interfered with work and home life. Making a commitment to study and not being distracted by unrelated menial tasks was a concern. Family and partners were cited as being helpful and supportive. The content of some courses was perceived to be irrelevant to students' future requirements, and at times the pace of delivery was too fast. Respondents recommended workshops on how to study effectively and how to access library resources on the computer. With the exception of requests for introductory subjects related to chosen future discipline areas, respondents felt the program did not need more content. The quality of campus facilities and staff assistance were rated highly, but the need for more activities for mature-age students was pointed out. Respondents generally believed that the program had prepared them well for future studies, and all respondents replied that they would recommend the bridging program to others. An appendix presents the survey questionnaire. | [FULL TEXT]

Ely, Andrea C.; Banitt, Angela; Befort, Christie; Hou, Qing; Rhode, Paula C.; Grund, Chrysanne; Greiner, Allen; Jeffries, Shawn; Ellerbeck, Edward (2008).  Kansas Primary Care Weighs In: A Pilot Randomized Trial of a Chronic Care Model Program for Obesity in 3 Rural Kansas Primary Care Practices  Journal of Rural Health, 24, 2. 

Context: Obesity is a chronic disease of epidemic proportions in the United States. Primary care providers are critical to timely diagnosis and treatment of obesity, and need better tools to deliver effective obesity care. Purpose: To conduct a pilot randomized trial of a chronic care model (CCM) program for obesity care in rural Kansas primary care. Methods: We enrolled 107 participants to a 6-month, 2-armed, randomized trial comparing a CCM for obesity with usual care. The primary outcome was weight change at 90 days. The usual care arm received educational weight loss materials and outcome assessments at day 0, 90, and 180. The active arm received the same elements as the usual care arm plus a multicomponent obesity CCM. Findings: The Day 90 mean [plus or minus] SD weight change for the active arm (n = 34) and control arm (n = 33), respectively, was -4.5 [plus or minus] 7.7 pounds and -2.4 [plus or minus] 8.1 pounds (P = 0.27 for difference). The Day 180 mean [plus or minus] SD weight change for the active (n = 27) and control (n = 27) arms, respectively, was -9.4 [plus or minus] 10.3 pounds and -2.1 [plus or minus] 10.7 pounds (P = 0.01 for difference). There was no significant change in physical activity, or fruit and vegetable intake at day 90 or day 180. Conclusions: Improving the recognition and treatment of obesity in primary care settings is a critical initiative. Rural populations suffer disproportionately with obesity, and better methods of delivering obesity care are needed for this population. Further research is needed to establish the effectiveness of a CCM approach for obesity care.

Emekauwa, Emeka (2004).  The Star with My Name: The Alaska Rural Systemic Initiative and the Impact of Place-Based Education on Native Student Achievement. The Case for Place-Based. Rural Trust White Paper on Place-Based Education  [Rural School and Community Trust] 

After nearly two centuries of denial within Western education institutions, the indigenous knowledge systems of Alaska's Natives are being recaptured through the work of the Alaska Rural Systemic Initiative. These knowledge systems, coupled with the best of Western science, form the foundation for a new type of education--one that is place-based, culturally responsive, academically rigorous, and capable of propelling the achievement of Native children forward.  | [FULL TEXT]

Emekauwa, Emeka; Williams, Doris Terry, Ed. (2004).  They Remember What They Touch...: The Impact of Place-Based Learning in East Feliciana Parish. Rural Trust White Paper on Place-Based Education  [Rural School and Community Trust] 

Stressed by high poverty levels, a low tax base and low teacher salaries, the East Feliciana School District competes, most often unsuccessfully, with neighboring districts and states, and with a relatively segregated white academy system for qualified teachers and pupil resources. Consequently, at the dawn of the federal government's landmark education reform initiative, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 55.8% percent of the district's K-8 teachers were not fully certified to teach and 80% of its students were performing below average in at least one core subject. At the same time, only 31.8% of the parish's adult population had completed high school and fewer than 5% were college graduates. With a median household income of $26,864, 26% of the parish's children were living below the poverty level. This paper describes the implementation and results of a reform effort, undertaken in the late 1990s, that focused on place-based science and mathematics education. Standardized test scores have improved, and parish schools are now developing lasting school-community partnerships. The district is connecting its residents, including students, with natural resources located in East Feliciana and the surrounding communities by collaborating with educators, parents, community members, clergy, businesses, and nonprofits.  | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2003).  Engaged Institutions: Impacting the Lives of Vulnerable Youth through Place-Based Learning. 

Six case studies examine the connections between higher education institutions and schools that have chosen place-based education as a framework for student learning and community growth. Through such partnerships, Lubec (Maine) high school has established a vocational aquaculture program in an effort to revitalize the struggling local fishing economy. Five rural Mississippi Delta school districts are raising academic skills and cultural pride through the writing process. The Navajo Nation is reclaiming its culture and developing and retaining native Navajo language-speaking teachers. Hispanic communities in northern New Mexico are focusing on water use and conservation. Twenty-nine school districts in Virginia and Kentucky are engaging students in media projects that address issues confronting central Appalachia. In Missouri, 10-15 rural school districts are working to increase teacher supply and retention. Findings indicate that the engagement of higher education institutions is usually limited to one or two impassioned faculty members in one or two departments or in a separately-created entity in the university. Place-based learning provides a focused and structured means for higher education institutions to impact the lives of vulnerable youth. Place-based learning can engage vulnerable youth in rigorous academics and increase their civic consciousness and participation. While university engagement with communities changes some faculty members' lives, institutional change is harder to effect. Community engagement appears easier for community colleges than universities. Recommendations for enabling institutional engagement are presented. | [FULL TEXT]

English, Leona M. (2005).  Foucault, Feminists and Funders: A Study of Power and Policy in Feminist Organisations  Studies in the Education of Adults, 37, 2. 

The article explores the relationships of feminist organisers with government policy makers and within their own organisations. Based on a qualitative study of eight directors and eight board members of grassroots feminist organisations, this paper examines how the funder (State) and the women (executive directors and board members) interact and exercise power. Using a Foucauldian post-structuralist lens, the article contributes to an understanding of power, discourse, policy, and learning.

English, Linda; Dickinson, Gerald; McBride, Jackie; Milligan, Julie; Nichols, Joe (2004).  Throw out the Lifeboat: Staying Afloat in the Age of Efficiency and Effectiveness.  Education, 125, 1. 

A rural school district in the Mississippi Delta Region of Arkansas was identified by the Arkansas Department of Education as being academically deficient. As a result, a partnership was formed between the school district and faculty members from a regional university to address the situation. A three-phase program of mastery teaching and learning was designed to improve teaching, learning, and test scores in the district. The program, identified as (.75_), was designed to ensure that at least seventy-five percent of the district's pupils would master at least seventy-five percent of the curriculum when given at least two opportunities to receive instruction in subject matter. The first phase, staff development, was successfully implemented during the first year of the project. The second phase, implementation, is identified in this manuscript, and details how the district's administration, teaching staff, and students accommodated (.75_). Discussed are methods of implementation, reaction by district stakeholders, and evaluation of the implementation phase of the project. The final phase of the project, assessment of student achievement, will be conducted after the second phase has been implemented and completed.

_____. (2001).  Entrepreneurship Everywhere: A Guide to Resources and Models for Entrepreneurship Education. 

This resource directory examines entrepreneurship education and training programs at all levels of education, with an emphasis on programs in the 13 Appalachian states served by the Appalachian Regional Commission. An introduction is followed by short sections describing the Appalachian Regional Commission and the Consortium for Entrepreneurship Education. A section on national entrepreneurship training programs and organizations presents 22 such organizations. The section on policy, advocacy, and information organizations contains 25 entries. Model programs in Appalachia are presented in a section containing 28 entries for Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. Thirty-five sample programs for the rest of the United States are covered in the following section. In each of these sections, contact information and an abstract of activities are given for each organization, usually accompanied by focus, geographic area, age levels served, products and services, and key partners. Programs serve elementary, secondary, undergraduate, postgraduate, and adult educational levels. Some programs target students with disabilities, minority groups, women, or adjudicated youth. Concluding sections list education partners and resources for classroom materials. | [FULL TEXT]

Eom, Tae Ho; Killeen, Kieran M. (2007).  Reconciling State Aid and Property Tax Relief for Urban Schools: Birthing a New STAR in New York State  Education and Urban Society, 40, 1. 

Similar to many property tax relief programs, New York State's School Tax Relief (STAR) program has been shown to exacerbate school resource inequities across urban, suburban, and rural schools. STAR's inherent conflict with the wealth equalization policies of New York State's school finance system are highlighted in a manner that effectively penalizes large, urban school districts by not adjusting for factors likely to contribute to high property taxation. As a policy solution, this article presents results of a simulation that distributes property tax relief using an econometrically based cost index. The results substantially favor high-need urban and rural school districts.

Erickson, Ralph J. (2002).  Foundations of the Mexican Federal Education System.  Clearing House, 75, 3. 

Surveys the history of education in Mexico, examining Aztec, colonial, and post-colonial education and education in the nationalistic or modern period. Describes the organization of schools, and discusses the continuing problem of rural education. Looks at teacher education and higher education, and outlines learning theories predominant in Mexican schools.

Ernst, Julie; Ellis, Dave (2005).  The Prairie Science Class: Pioneering a Trail in Interdisciplinary Learning  Science Scope, 28, 7. 

What happens when an old farmstead, native tall-grass prairie, and middle school students are mixed together? Would one guess learning? That is exactly what is happening in Fergus Falls, Minnesota, where students from a rural middle school have joined with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) to restore native tallgrass prairie. In the process, the lines between traditional subject areas are blurring as the local environment becomes the context for integrating science, math, and writing. Growing out of a dream of developing a school located on the prairie where children learn about the natural environment, this partnership is proving that integrated science makes sense. Today, 100 students attend school daily at the Prairie Wetlands Learning Center (PWLC), a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service site. These students, known as the Prairie Science Class, are discovering that using their local environment helps learning come alive and brings new meaning to their study of basic subject areas.

Estell, David B.; Farmer, Thomas W.; Irvin, Matthew J.; Thompson, Jana H.; Hutchins, Bryan C.; McDonough, Erin M. (2007).  Patterns of Middle School Adjustment and Ninth Grade Adaptation of Rural African American Youth: Grades and Substance Use  Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 4. 

The transition to high school has been identified as a potentially difficult time in adolescents' lives. Reductions in both academic and social functioning often accompany this transition. While these effects have been documented in urban youth, the move to high school has not been extensively studied in rural minority youth. Toward that end, the academic grades and substance use in ninth grade of 447 (184 male and 263 female) African-American adolescents from two rural counties in a state in the deep South were examined in relation to configurations of adaptation from sixth through eighth grade. Results indicate that individual with consistently positive patterns across middle school had higher grades and lower rates of substance use compared to individuals with persistent difficulties or those that transitioned to problem behavior. Many individuals who improved in their patterns of adaptation had relatively high grades, but also rather high rates of substance use in the ninth grade.

Evans, G. R. (2004).  Due Diligence, Higher Education Funding and CMI Ltd  Higher Education Policy, 17, 1. 

Recent Government policy has been strongly in favour of encouraging entrepreneurship and partnerships with industry. A flagship project backed by 68 million British Pounds was launched by Gordon Brown as Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1999. Due diligence exercises by the DTI failed to ensure that value for money was obtained. What had been planned and announced as an educational charity became a Limited Company and the ban on using the money for commercial spin-outs was waived. There was imperfect quality control of projects and little control over costing. There appear to be funding lessons both for Government and for universities at a time when it is proposed to charge students top-up fees, for the sum given away by the Treasury here for one badly-supervised project represents the top-up fees of over 20,000 students.

Evans, Timothy C.; Wick, Keren H.; Brock, Douglas M.; Schaad, Douglas C.; Ballweg, Ruth (2006).  Academic Degrees and Clinical Practice Characteristics: The University of Washington Physician Assistant Program: 1969-2000  Journal of Rural Health, 22, 3. 

Context: The physician assistant profession has been moving toward requiring master's degrees for new practitioners, but some argue this could change the face of the discipline. Purpose: To see if there is an association between physician assistants' academic degrees and practice in primary care, in rural areas, and with the medically underserved. Methods: Surveys were sent to 880 graduates of the first 32 University of Washington physician assistant classes through 2000. Respondents noted their academic degree at program entry and the highest degree attained at any time up to the time of survey. Relationships between practice characteristics and academic degree levels were tested by unadjusted odds ratios and logistic regression after controlling for year of graduation and sex. Results: Of the 478 respondents, 54% worked in primary care, about 30% practiced in nonmetropolitan communities, and 42% reported providing care for the medically underserved. Respondents with no degree (33% of total at entry, 24% at survey) were significantly more likely than degree holders to work in primary care and nonmetropolitan areas. Respondents with no degree at program entry were significantly more likely, and those with no degree at the time of the survey were marginally more likely, to self-report work with the medically underserved. Conclusion: Respondents with no academic degree are significantly more likely to demonstrate a commitment to primary, rural, and underserved health care. These findings may inform the national debate about the impact of required advanced degrees on the practice patterns of nonphysician providers.

Eversole, Robyn (2001).  Regional University Access: A Case Study from the South West. 

A study examined university service delivery in an isolated, inland region of south Western Australia. Surveys, focus groups, and interviews with students and former students found that many pre-university youths leave the area because education is only offered through year 10. Therefore, college students in the area tend to be mature-aged. Key issues for these students included isolation and lack of peer interaction/support; limited access to academic resources; and the need for enormous levels of motivation. Particularly, students who commuted long distances to campus faced expenses involved with transportation, lodging, child care, and time off from work; transportation difficulties; and time constraints as they tried to juggle family, commuting, study, and work. Students who studied externally noted difficulties communicating with lecturers and tutors; a strong need for independent study skills; long time-lags between start of courses and completion; and difficulties in completing degrees when degree programs were changed or courses were not offered externally. Recommendations are offered for increasing access to other students, lecturers, other people relevant to the learning process, texts and research materials, quiet places to study, university information, and general academic support. Informed and proactive tutors, a reduced need to travel, and ways of presenting material appropriate to long-distance study were also recommended. The heart of successful service lies less in technology than in methodology--understanding the culture of learning and responding in creative ways. | [FULL TEXT]

The number of overweight children and adolescents in the U.S. has reached epidemic proportions, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). In 2000, the CDC estimated that 15 percent of the nation's youth were overweight. Overweight children and adolescents are exposed to many health risks, most notably the increased risk for high cholesterol, high blood pressure and Type 2 diabetes. And over the long run, overweight children have a 70 percent chance of becoming overweight or obese adults and experiencing many other health risks. To address the information gap, the Center for Rural Pennsylvania analyzed weight data covering a three-year period from the Pennsylvania Department of Health. The data involved the same groups of students from 151 school districts throughout the state. The analysis showed that in 2001, rural school districts had a higher percentage of overweight students than urban districts and that the problem of overweight rural students was increasing. Between 1999 and 2001, the number of overweight students increased faster in rural schools than in urban schools. | [FULL TEXT]