Rural Education | C

Cairo, Leslie, III; Craig, Jim (2005).  Cross-Age Tutoring Phase II--An Experiment  [Appalachia Educational Laboratory at Edvantia] 

Peer tutoring and cross-age tutoring are two student-to-student tutoring methods. Peer tutoring occurs when tutors and tutees are of the same age. Cross-age tutoring refers to older students tutoring younger students. Studies of cross-age tutoring have reported improved academic performance for both tutors and tutees. The present study was conducted to determine the extent to which cross-age tutoring employed in a rural setting would produce outcomes similar to those reported in urban settings and in other countries. A between/within repeated measures experimental design was used to gauge the effects of cross-age tutoring on learning and retaining knowledge of fraction manipulations. Participating students were randomly assigned to one of four groups: tutors, tutees, nontutors, and nontutees. Tutors and nontutors were seventh- and eighth-grade students at one of two small elementary schools in the same rural district. Tutees and nontutees were third-, fourth-, or fifth-grade students attending the same rural elementary school. Analyses of both knowledge gain and retention scores revealed no significant differences in knowledge of fraction manipulations between tutors and nontutors, tutors and tutees, or tutees and nontutees. Lessons learned and study limitations are discussed. The following is appended: Cross-age Tutoring Fractions Pretest, First Posttest, and Final Posttest | [FULL TEXT]

Caldeira, Rute (2008).  '"My Land, Your Social Transformation": Conflicts within the Landless People Movement (MST), Rio De Janeiro, Brazil  Journal of Rural Studies, 24, 2. 

The Brazilian "Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem-Terra" (MST) is one of the best-known and most prominent rural social movements. The unequal distribution of land in Brazil, and the neglect of this problem by successive Brazilian governments contributed greatly to the organisation of rural movements striving for the implementation of land reform in the country. The struggle for land therefore frames the MST collective action and legitimates its raison d'etre as a social movement. The MST framing process, carried out mainly by the movement leaders and organisers, intends to unify the social movement by articulating private beliefs, interpretations and preferences into shared values and meanings. However, this process of framing does not take place without competition or/and conflict: leaders are many times forced to compete with other institutions, with the media, or even with inherited cultural understandings which provide alternative frames. This paper focuses particularly on the conflicting process of framing internal to the MST. More specifically, the present paper looks at how the MST leaders/organisers frame, and interpret, community and land differently from the MST settlers/followers whose lived experiences and inherited cultural understandings naturally informed their perceptions both on community and land.

Calhoun, John A. (2004).  The Deeper Principles of Prevention  Reclaiming Children and Youth: The Journal of Strength-based Interventions, 13, 1. 

The founder of the National Crime Prevention Council observes that many successful prevention initiatives are driven by deeply held moral or religious beliefs. He proposes that they enhance their "policy-speak" with deeper spiritual principles underlying many effective programs. This article puts forth a glossary of reclaiming concepts rooted in spiritual ideals.

Calvert Jr., James F.; Goldenberg, Paula C.; Schock, Cathy (2005).  Chronic Hepatitis C Infection in a Rural Medicaid HMO  Journal of Rural Health, 21, 1. 

Chronic hepatitis C infection (CHCI) is an increasingly common problem, affecting about 2% of the US population. The cost and complexity of treatment and difficulties in communicating with the infected population are of concern to insurers and health planners. Purpose: To describe the clinical features of patients with CHCI in a rural Medicaid-covered population and to describe a method developed for treating CHCI in an underserved rural community. Methods: We developed a disease management approach to patients with CHCI receiving insurance coverage through a Medicaid HMO in rural Oregon. A locally based multidisciplinary hepatitis committee was formed to develop a management protocol and a process for selecting patients for treatment. The committee met monthly to develop the treatment plan for individual patients. Day-to-day treatment was provided by a nurse under the supervision of the committee. Findings: One hundred forty-three adults with CHCI were identified by their primary care physicians. About half the patients had a type 1 genotype. Treatment with pegylated interferon and ribavirin was completed on 21 persons, 11 (52%) of whom had a virologic cure. Problems with treatment toxicity were common. Patient satisfaction with the treatment by the nurse was high. Conclusions: CHCI is common in this rural, nonminority Medicaidi nsured population. A locally based disease management model was developed that was well received by patients and was successful in delivering a high quality of care for people with CHCI in a rural area.

Campbell, Alison (2002).  Excellence in Workplace Literacy, Large Business Winner, 2001: The North West Company. Case Study. 

The North West Company (NWC), which is the leading retailer of food and everyday products and services to remote communities across northern Canada and Alaska, was the large business winner of the Excellence in Workplace Literacy award in 2001. NWC's workplace literacy program was selected for an award because of the improvements it brought, not only to employees, but also to the communities where they live and work. The program's primary objective was to determine the best approach to closing the gap between the skills workers require and those they possess. Its enabling objectives were as follows: (1) use detailed training plans to increase employees' technical knowledge through workplace education and training; (2) overcome the barriers that prevent Aboriginal employees from advancing into management positions; (3) make learning accessible to various literacy levels by offering a variety of training methods and using physically and emotionally centered learning; (4) address all areas of literacy, including interpersonal, technical, and enabling skills that increase overall employability; and (5) promote continuous learning and upgrading through educational institutions by offering tuition reimbursements and recognizing achievements. The NWC workplace literacy program was credited with improving employees' motivation and productivity, reducing turnover costs, and enabling more Aboriginal employees than ever to advance to managerial positions. | [FULL TEXT]

Campbell, Gregorgy R.; Foor, Thomas A. (2004).  Entering Sacred Landscapes: Cultural Expectations versus Legal Realities in the Northwestern Plains  Great Plains Quarterly, 24, 3. 

Sacred and cultural geography is a universal feature of indigenous religious practices across Native North America. However, in a growing number of cases, conflicts have developed between Native North American religious practitioners and land-managing federal agencies. The contentious situations often come down to Indian peoples struggling to reassert their religious rights within an environment of "due process, federal and state statutes, and administrative policies." Here we take a case study, the Big Horn Medicine Wheel, and examine the problem of weighing a value system based on inextricably associating a spiritual world and physical geography against a system that inherently separates the two.

Canada, Javier Sanz; Vazquez, Alfredo Macias (2005).  Quality Certification, Institutions and Innovation in Local Agro-Food Systems: Protected Designations of Origin of Olive Oil in Spain  Journal of Rural Studies, 21, 4. 

This article examines the interrelations between establishment of territorial quality certification systems (Protected Designations of Origin or PDOs), diffusion of innovations through local agro-food chains, and the role of the institutions overseeing geographical designations. Empirical analysis is applied to olive oil PDOs in Spain and entails a detailed case study of the "Sierra Magina" PDO in Andalusia. Making use of the neoinstitutional concept of "organised proximity"--and focussing specifically on the problematic of organizational quality--the article assesses characteristics that support the competitive positions of local certified-product production systems. In particular, the authors find that collective organisation and coordination between PDO agents who are locally responsible for quality assurance and protection can enhance local competitiveness. Three hypotheses are confirmed. First, PDO labels can, through the action of PDO regulators, become quality assurance systems for distributors. Second, PDO Regulatory Boards can enhance and coordinate local inter-professional activities, particularly with respect to the diffusion of quality-enhancing innovations and knowledge. Third, the study indicates that local certified-product systems are starting to incorporate quality attributes linked to the environment and sustainable development, although much remains to be accomplished in this regard.

Canessa, Andrew (2004).  Reproducing Racism: Schooling and Race in Highland Bolivia  Race Ethnicity and Education, 7, 2. 

Bolivia is one of the few Latin American nations with a majority indian population. Strong assimilationist policies over the past fifty years have meant indians have been discriminated against in many areas of social life. Rural schools have been a principal tool in assimilation. Over the past decade political and education reform have shifted policy away from an assimilationist model to a multicultural one. Of great significance is the requirement for use of indigenous languages in school and, as a consequence, large numbers of teachers who themselves come from indian communities. Despite these policies, schoolteachers are still a major source of assimilationist cultural ideology and are principal agents in reproducing hegemonic racism in indian communities. It cannot be assumed that indian teachers will be positive models for indian children in a racist society; indeed, the ambiguous racial and cultural position of the indian teacher may mean quite the opposite. This paper, based on anthropological fieldwork, examines the role of teachers and schooling in an Aymara-speaking highland village.

Capizzano, Jeffrey; Fiorillo, Alexandra (2004).  Young Children and the Rural Information Gap: The Weaknesses of Major Data Sources for Examining the Well-Being of Rural Children  [National Center for Rural Early Childhood Learning Initiatives - Mississippi State University Early Childhood Institute] 

The devolution of increasing amounts of responsibility for the design and implementation of child and family policy has increased demand for measures of child well-being at lower levels of geography. Currently, however, it is unclear the extent to which commonly used measures of well-being can be estimated for children living in rural areas. To investigate this issue, the authors examined a number of large, national data sets that provide source data for well-being indicators. We find that data confidentiality protocols and small sample sizes limit the extent to which child well-being indicators can be estimated for rural children. While public-use data can be used to estimate many indicators of child well-being using the imprecise "nonmetropolitan" definition of rural, few indicators can be estimated when rural is defined more precisely (areas with populations of less than 2,500 residents). Gaining access to non-public-use data increases the number of indicators that can be estimated with the more precise definition of rural, but at substantial monetary and administrative costs. The authors conclude this discussion with suggestions for next steps to promote analysis and dissemination of child well-being indicators for rural young children. [This report was prepared for the National Center for Rural Early Childhood Learning Initiatives, Mississippi State University.] | [FULL TEXT]

Carlo, Gustavo; Crockett, Lisa J.; Randall, Brandy A.; Roesch, Scott C. (2007).  A Latent Growth Curve Analysis of Prosocial Behavior among Rural Adolescents  Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 2. 

The present study was designed to investigate stability and changes in prosocial behavior and the parent and peer correlates of prosocial behavior in rural adolescents. Participants were from a rural, low SES community in the Eastern United States. The participants were in 7th, 8th, and 9th grades at Time 1 and 10th, 11th, and 12th grades at Time 4, and completed measures of prosocial behavior and quality of parent and peer relationships. Latent growth curve modeling revealed that despite moderate stability in individual differences in prosocial behavior and slight increases in quality of peer and parent relationships, level of prosocial behavior declined until late high school with a slight rebound in grade 12. Furthermore, increases in the quality of peer relationships predicted decreases in prosocial behavior for girls but not boys. Discussion focuses on continuity and change in prosocial behavior and the gender-based relations between quality of parent and peer relationships and prosocial behaviors in adolescence.

Carlson, Robert V. (2000).  Case Studies of Rural Schools Implementing Comprehensive School Reform Models. 

Case studies of five small and isolated rural schools in the south-central United States examined their participation and success in the Comprehensive School Reform Demonstration (CSRD) program. The schools included three elementary schools and two K-12 unit schools serving 71-473 students. All were at least 50 miles from a metropolitan area and were Title I eligible. Each school was receiving approximately $50,000 per year for 3 years to underwrite CSRD costs. Site visits took place in the fall and spring of the first year. At each school, the study examined which schoolwide reform model was chosen and why, challenges and barriers to implementing the chosen model, the role of the model developer in program implementation, and how the rural context affected progress. The studies found that the funds awarded generally were sufficient for program implementation. Program developers were able to provide quality training and support despite the schools' isolation and small size. Teachers recognized the fit between the models chosen and school needs. CSRD models that were more prescriptive were implemented very quickly, and teachers observed significant pupil gains in related skills. Less prescriptive models were implemented more slowly and were subject to some teacher skepticism and indifference. State accountability systems played a major role in motivating schools to participate in CSRD. Parents and community members were minimally involved in CSRD implementation. Small school size seemed to facilitate internal communications and problem solving. Appendices contain case study details and data collection forms. | [FULL TEXT]

Caro, Mario A. (2006).  You Are Here: The NMAI as Site of Identification  American Indian Quarterly, 30, 3-4. 

The nationalist function of museums has been the topic of much scholarly attention. The collection of museums at the heart of Washington DC serves as a prime example of how these institutions demand that visitors identify along national affiliations. In this article, the author discusses the case of the National Museum of the American Indian (NMAI), wherein visiting the museum is a trip that makes one extremely aware of the relationships among the Native cultural products on display, the site of the museum, and one's concept of home. Whether the process is one that reaffirms one's identity as Indigenous or one that stresses the ways in which one identifies others as Native, traveling to the museum makes one conscious of the importance of location in the processes of identification. The author considers the idea of location, as both a place and the act of placing, in relation to the site occupied by the NMAI. He examines how the approach to the museum informs the visitor's experience within the museum. Among other things, he presents discussions from critics regarding the museum site.

Carr-Stewart, Sheila (2006).  First Nations Education: Financial Accountability and Educational Attainment  Canadian Journal of Education, 29, 4. 

First Nations people have both a Constitutional and a Treaty right to education; however, the Crown's jurisdictional obligations to provide educational services have not lead to similar educational opportunities and attainment achievement for First Nations students as compared to Canadian students in provincial schools. Canada's Auditor General, in 2000, stated that Indian and Northern Affairs Canada could not demonstrate that it reached the objective to assist First Nations students on reserve in achieving their educational needs and aspirations. In 2004, the Auditor General noted a widening achievement gap. Using statistical information from the Department of Indian Affairs and the Auditor General to consider educational financial accountability, the author argues that equitable financial resources are required to support First Nations students in band-managed schools.

Carroll, Matthew S.; Higgins, Lorie L.; Cohn, Patricia J.; Burchfield, James (2006).  Community Wildfire Events as a Source of Social Conflict  Rural Sociology, 71, 2. 

The literature notes that natural disasters, including wildfires, that damage human settlements often have the short-term effect of "bringing people together." Less recognized is the fact that such events can also generate social conflict at the local level. This study examines the specific sources of such social conflict during and after community wildfire events. Examining qualitative data generated from six case studies of wildfires in the American West, we suggest that integrating the theories of Weber, Giddens, and Habermas with community interaction theory provides a context for understanding such conflict. Rationalized forms of interaction and problem solving imposed by extra-local organizations during and after wildfire events are often resisted by local actors who are also inhibited from acting due to local capacity limitations. Thus, conflict occurs when social relations are disembedded by non-local entities, and there is a perceived loss of local agency.

Carvajal, Manuel J. (2004).  Measuring Economic Discrimination of Hispanic-Owned Architecture and Engineering Firms in South Florida  Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 26, 1. 

Using data developed for the U.S. District Court, this study compared the performance of Hispanic-owned firms and two groupings of non-Hispanic-owned firms in three South Florida markets: architecture (n= 176), structural engineering (n= 144), and civil engineering (n = 200). Within each market, firms?earnings are expressed as functions of longevity, production capacity, location, and whether the firm is owned by a woman. Separate earnings functions are developed for each ethnic classification, and a decomposition technique is applied to test for discrimination. The results show that the three markets do not convert firms' characteristics into economic outcomes in the same manner for Hispanic and for non-Hispanic owners. The projected earnings of firms owned by Hispanics constitute a fraction of what non-Hispanic-owned firms with identical characteristics are expected to earn. Within each ethnic classification, the earnings of women owned firms are lower than the earnings of firms with identical characteristics not owned by women.

Casey, Michelle M.; Moscovice, Ira (2004).  Quality Improvement Strategies and Best Practices in Critical Access Hospitals  Journal of Rural Health, 20, 4. 

Critical access hospitals (CAHs) face many challenges in implementing quality improvement (QI) initiatives, which include limited resources, low volume of patients, small staffs, and inadequate information technology. A primary goal of the Medicare Rural Hospital Flexibility Program is to improve the quality of care provided by CAHs. This article describes key quality improvement initiatives for a national sample of CAHs that are actively involved in implementing quality-related initiatives in collaboration with support hospitals and statewide organizations. Researchers conducted a national telephone survey of 72 CAHs and 2 in-depth case studies of CAHs. The survey and case studies demonstrate that many CAHs are successfully implementing QI activities, including patient safety initiatives, improvements in overall QI processes and peer review processes, and implementation of QI projects focused on treatment of 1 or more specific diseases. The CAHs are involved with multiple external organizations in these activities. The administrators of the 2 case study CAHs have made QI a priority for their hospitals; ensured that resources are available for QI activities; and worked with their support hospitals, statewide organizations, and other CAHs to develop and implement rural-relevant QI initiatives. Cost-based Medicare reimbursement has been a key factor in the ability of CAHs to fund additional staff, staff training, and equipment to improve patient care. The commitment of hospital leaders and key staff is a crucial factor in moving QI initiatives forward in CAHs.

Cassady, Joslyn D.; Kirschke, David L.; Jones, Timothy F.; Craig, Allen S.; Bermudez, Ovidio B.; Schaffner, William (2005).  Case Series: Outbreak of Conversion Disorder among Amish Adolescent Girls.  Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 3. 

Objective: Outbreak investigations are challenging in a cross-cultural context, and outbreaks of psychiatric disease are rare in any community. We investigated a cluster of unexplained debilitating illness among Amish girls. Method: We reviewed the medical records of cases, consulted with health care providers, performed active case finding, administered open-ended and structured interviews, and met with Amish community members. A case-patient was defined as a resident of the county who was bedridden for more than 3 weeks with otherwise unexplained systemic weakness and anorexia from January 2000 to February 2002. Results: Five case-patients were identified. All were Amish girls aged 9 to 13 years. All five had debilitating voluntary motor deficits, anorexia, and weight loss. Four experienced neck weakness with inability to hold up their heads. Thorough medical evaluations failed to identify an organic etiology. All five patients met the diagnostic criteria for conversion disorder. Substantial social conflict within the Amish community preceded illness onset. Family behavioral interventions were recommended. Three months after the investigation, four of five patients demonstrated some improvement. Conclusions: Clinicians should be aware of the potential for outbreaks of psychogenic illness and work to address the challenges of developing effective intervention strategies, particularly in the cross-cultural context. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 2005;44(3):291-297. Key Words: outbreak, conversion disorder, Amish, cross-cultural.

Castaneda, Carmelita; Kambutu, John; Rios, Francisco (2006).  Speaking Their Truths: Teachers of Color in Diasporic Contexts  Rural Educator, 27, 3. 

This study examines the meaning of teaching in rural, historically monocultural communities as it is experienced by teachers of color. This research project developed in three phases: (1) identifying; (2) observing teaching practices of; and (3) conducting a weekend focus group with a sampling of teachers of color working in middle and secondary education in the rural state of Wyoming. The data sought from these participants emanated from the following overarching question: How do teachers of color in isolated, relatively rural contexts make sense of their teaching experiences as marginalized people in their profession? Participants were also asked to share the challenges they face as teachers in the settings in which they have chosen to work. The authors identified three broad themes--being held suspect, misperceptions, and invisibility--that captured the diversity of the challenges the participants related. The study shows that participants acknowledge entering teaching as a career for many of the same reasons that draw educators from the nation's general population. That is, they have experienced the support and encouragement of family and other adults, they recognize a "natural teaching ability" in themselves, and they bring the desire to impact the lives of others. However, these participants bring three additional elements unique to the equation for teachers of color: (1) the opportunity of being a role model primarily for students of color; (2) the potential to challenge racial-ethnic stereotypes and replace them with acceptance as professional individuals; and (3) the training and desire to bring a multicultural perspective to the schooling enterprise. | [FULL TEXT]

Castellano, Jaime A. (2002).  Special Populations in Gifted Education: Working with Diverse Gifted Learners. 

This book provides 13 readings on special populations in gifted education. It is based on the premise that gifted and talented students transcend (1) cultural, ethnic, and linguistic ties; (2) conditions that are disabling; (3) sexual orientation; (4) poverty; and (5) geography. Chapters are: (1) "Casting a Wider Net: Linking Bilingual and Gifted Education" (Jim Granada); (2) "ESL Students in Gifted Education" (Nilda Aguirre); (3) "The 'Browning' of American Schools: Identifying and Educating Gifted Hispanic Students" (Jaime A. Castellano); (4) "Gifted Education and African American Learners: An Equity Perspective" (Ken Dickson); (5) "Opportunities in Gifted Education for Haitian Students" (Jaime A. Castellano); (6) "Biracial and Bicultural Gifted Students" (Virginia Gonzalez); (7) "Gifted and Talented Females: The Struggle for Recognition" (Valentina Kloosterman and Keith Suranna); (8) "Gifted Education for the Native American Student" (Kevin Foley and Oliva Skenandore); (9) "The Gay Gifted Learner: Facing the Challenge of Homophobia and Antihomsexual Bias in Schools" (Sandy Cohn); (10) "Serving the Economically Disadvantaged in Gifted Education: The Palm Beach County Story" (Jaime A. Castellano and others); (11) "When the Gifts Are Camouflaged by Disability: Identifying and Developing the Talent in Gifted Students with Disabilities" (Terry Neu); (12) "Gifted Education in Rural Schools" (Clar Baldus); and (13) "Evaluating Progress toward Equitable Representation of Historically Underserved Groups in Gifted and Talented Programs" (Ernesto Bernal). (Individual chapters contain references.)

Castle, Emery N. (2002).  Social Capital: An Interdisciplinary Concept  Rural Sociology, 67, 3. 

This paper sets forth an interdisciplinary interpretation of social capital that will permit the concept to be used with precision in scholarly and scientific work. If the interpretation is accepted, the social capital concept cannot be regarded as a social theory, nor as a statement of normative goals. The interdisciplinary concept proposed here is applied to rural studies.

Castro, D.C.; Bryant, D.M.; Peisner-Feinberg, E.S.; Skinner, M.L. (2004).  Parent Involvement in Head Start Programs: The Role of Parent, Teacher and Classroom Characteristics  Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19, 3. 

The purposes of this study were to determine the extent and types of parent involvement in Head Start programs, and to examine the relations between parent participation and family, teacher and classroom characteristics. Parents (n = 1131) and teachers (n = 59) from four Head Start programs participated. Data were gathered through volunteer logs, parent interviews, teacher questionnaires, and classroom observations. The most frequent type of parent involvement activity was helping out in the classroom, followed by attendance at parent meetings. This pattern was consistent across the year (fall or spring), and across total amount of participation (i.e. parents participating one, two, three or more times in the year). Parent employment was the strongest predictor of parent involvement compared to other parent characteristics. Among teacher and classroom characteristics, classroom quality was the strongest predictor of parent involvement. Also, teachers with more years of experience in Head Start had more total hours of volunteering in their classrooms and had volunteers returning more times. Teachers' reports of the involvement of parents in their classrooms were moderately correlated with volunteer logs, while parent self-reports of their involvement were only modestly correlated with volunteer logs, indicating that teachers may be more accurate than parents when reporting parent involvement activities.

Cattle, Julie; Howie, Dorothy (2008).  An Evaluation of a School Programme for the Development of Thinking Skills through the CASE@KS1 Approach  International Journal of Science Education, 30, 2. 

This study explored the effects of a cognitive intervention program, Cognitive Acceleration in Science at Key Stage 1 (CASE@KS1), on both the thinking skills and motivation of a rural population in the United Kingdom. It used a quasi-experimental design and measures of both near and far transfer in order to replicate the evaluation of this program by Adey and colleagues with an urban population. In general, support was found for the positive findings of Adey and colleagues, with some significant findings on a near-transfer task but more inconclusive findings on a far-transfer task. The motivational measure used in this study identified some issues of interest, including gender difference in response, suggesting the value of motivational assessment in evaluation of the CASE@KS1 intervention program.

Cavalcanti, Marilda C. (2004).  "It's Not Writing by Itself that Is Going to Solve Our Problems": Questioning a Mainstream Ethnocentric Myth as Part of a Search for Self-Sustained Development  Language and Education, 18, 4. 

School education among Rainforest native Brazilians is alien to their traditional indigenous education. At first, schooling was imposed by the dominant society, later it became their choice, today it is their right as entitled by the 1988 Brazilian Constitution. "En route" towards self-determination, some of these native peoples, i.e. teachers who attend a continued education course, are now discussing the role of schools in their communities. This paper focuses on an Asheninka teacher's views of literacy with emphasis on school and writing. His reflections question graphocentrism and point out a need to denaturalise taken-for-granted concepts which are part of the ethnocentric view of the non-indigenous society. His discussion is placed in a comprehensive way and includes public policies for self-sustained development.

Cegelka, Patricia Thomas; Fitch, Suzanne; Alvarado, Jose Luis (2001).  The Coach-of-Coaches Model for Preparing Rural Special Education Teachers. 

San Diego State University (California) has developed a coach-of-coaches model of providing support, assistance, and supervision to intern-teachers in its rural special education alternative credential program. Coaches, who are fully credentialed teachers with supervisory skills, make a minimum of nine direct and indirect (video analysis) observations of the interns each year during the 2-year program. Coaches receive back-up support from the university's Intern Support Liaison (ISL), who serves as coach and supervisor to the coaches. Every 4-6 weeks the ISL meets with the coaches for a half-day to review intern progress, identify difficulties, and problem-solve. Video segments from selected interns are reviewed, with the ISL assisting coaches in refining their observation skills, identifying areas for intern improvement, and providing training in coaching/mentoring. Following these meetings, the ISL holds an intern seminar in which segments of intern videos are reviewed and teaching behaviors are analyzed. Needs identified in these meetings form the basis for future seminars and all-day "fast track" workshops that provide intensive training in identified areas of need. A teacher observation form is used by the intern and coach to evaluate instructional time, student responses, consequences, and seven additional factors associated with effective instructional delivery. The program has resulted in full certification of over 60 percent of current special education teachers in a vast, geographically isolated desert region of southern California. Retention rates of both teachers and coaches are high. | [FULL TEXT]

Ceglowski, Deborah (2006).  Head Start-Operated Full-Day Services: Successes, Challenges, and Issues  Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 20, 3. 

Researchers conducted focus groups in three Minnesota Head Start programs that provide full-day services. The purpose of this descriptive study was to understand how these programs operated, the strengths and challenges of full-day Head Start programs, and how working parents and those on public assistance described these services. Findings include parents' satisfaction with various models of full-day services and parents' needs for extended hour care, transportation, information about full-day options, and child care assistance. Attributes of successful models include guaranteed fiscal support to programs, long-term partnerships with community programs, equipment, supplies, and renovation funds for child care programs, and Head Start mentoring and support personnel to work with family and center providers. Full-day models coupled with postsecondary training opportunities provide a viable means to help families obtain family self-sufficiency. Challenges and issues include concerns about the quality of some child care programs, inadequate fiscal and Head Start staff support for child care partners, and lack of understanding of the differences between Head Start and child care. These findings are important because Head Start agencies, recognizing the need for full-day services, are now developing and implementing these services, and the three programs provide several models, each with strengths, weaknesses, and issues.

Cejda, Brent D. (2007).  Connecting to the Larger World: Distance Education in Rural Community Colleges  New Directions for Community Colleges, 2007, 137. 

This chapter reviews the literature on the status of distance education in rural community colleges, and addresses issues rural community colleges face in implementing distance education.

Cejda, Brent D. (2007).  Distance Education in Rural Community Colleges  Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 31, 4. 

In the mid-1990s, distance education seemed to hold the future for rural community colleges. As distance education has moved to Internet-based technologies, concern has been raised about the digital divide and its impact on distance education. This article describes the status of technology-based distance education offered by rural community colleges in 9 states, and it identifies the distance education technology issues facing these institutions. Implications for national associations and organizations, universities, state and federal policymakers, and the community colleges are discussed.

Cele, Mlungisi Gabriel (2005).  Meeting the Knowledge Needs of the Academy and Industry: A Case Study of a Partnership between a University and a Large Energy Company in South Africa  Industry and Higher Education, 19, 2. 

This case study examines the evolution of the 21-year research partnership between the University of Cape Town (UCT) and the South African Coal Oil and Gas Corporation (SASOL). The study finds that an individual academic has played a significant role in steering transformation research activities and culture in the university?s Chemical Engineering Department. The UCT-SASOL partnership has led to human resource, technology and infrastructure development. A strong link has been maintained between basic disciplinary Mode 1 teaching and research, and multidisciplinary Mode 2 applied and strategic research and training. There is also a strong link between academic, research and postgraduate activities--the department's industry-oriented research cross-subsidizes academic and postgraduate activities.

_____. (2003).  Charting New Paths: Rural Development in the South. 2001-2002 Annual Report. 

The Southern Rural Development Center (SRDC) seeks to strengthen the capacity of the region's 29 land-grant institutions to address critical, contemporary rural development issues impacting the well-being of people and communities in the rural South. Work force development, education, leadership training, food security, civic engagement, urban sprawl, and access to health care and information technology are representative of the issues addressed. During the past year, the SRDC has initiated research activities addressing the influence of family, school and community social capital on the educational outcomes of rural youth; welfare and food stamp programs; and the educational needs of the Southeast United States. In addition, the SRDC was asked to work with the Mississippi Development Authority to create a database that would provide valuable information on each of the state's workforce investment areas, including key demographic and economic features of each area. Research conferences and workshops were conducted on Latinos in the South, measuring rural diversity, and the role of education in promoting the economic and social vitality of rural America. Research investments were made in food assistance research, sustainable communities, and sustainable agriculture. To link extension educators with communities, training workshops and educational resources were offered in economic diversity, community planning, service infrastructure, civic engagement, and youth/adult workforce development. This annual report lists publications; funding sources; and members of the board of directors, advisory committee, partners, and center staff. | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2006).  Challenges and Solutions Regarding Community College Service in Rural and Remote Areas: A Progress Report. Commission Report 06-15  [California Postsecondary Education Commission] 

This report provides an update on the California Postsecondary Education Commission's advisory committee that is examining community college services in rural and remote areas. Three initial challenges have been identified and are discussed. These challenges are related to (1) student needs, (2) community college funding, and (3) administrative procedures and policies. The following questions guided the Commission's initial discussion, which involved a panel of educators and administrators: What are some of the most difficult challenges confronting local districts in serving rural and remote areas? What specific types of strategies and institutional arrangements do community college districts use to enhance educational services in rural and remote area? What proposals are currently under consideration by lawmakers and educators to address community college access issues in rural and remote areas? Should certain aspects of program-based funding and the Commission's facility review guidelines be modified to better reflect the service delivery and enrollment constraints faced by districts in serving rural and remote areas? Appendix A lists the Commission Advisory Committee on Community College Service in Rural and Remote Areas. Appendix B lists California Counties with Significant Rural Communities. | [FULL TEXT]

Chaboux, Collette (2006).  Meeting EFA: Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) Primary Schools. Case Study  [Academy for Educational Development] 

This case study describes the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), which was formed to explore ways to help children from its rural development program gain access to improved education. Working mainly in rural areas, BRAC focused on improved quality through improved education service delivery, management detail, and finance. While various components changed over time, the non-formal primary education (NFPE) centers for children of the rural poor remain the core activity for the BRAC Education Program. | [FULL TEXT]

Chalmers, Gordon (2006).  Aboriginal Knowledges in the Australian Market Place: Different Issue, Same Story  Policy Futures in Education, 4, 4. 

With Indigenous knowledges being increasingly available via different media, there is the risk of these knowledges becoming disengaged from the peoples who imparted them. A consequence of this disengagement is that it creates the conditions for the creation and perpetuation of misunderstanding and misuse of Indigenous peoples' lifeworlds. This article explores issues surrounding tensions between Indigenous and non-Indigenous ways of disseminating knowledge and it points to areas of possible change whereby the latter may seek to find its processes normalised within the former. In particular, it suggests that an approach to Indigenous knowledges that incorporates many of their original regulatory mechanisms would go a long way towards avoiding both the misunderstanding and misuse of these knowledges. The article draws upon examples from particular Aboriginal groups in the Northern Territory of Australia who, it can be said, have for a long time engaged in this process of "Indigenising" dominant modes of information dissemination and use. In some cases, this process has proven successful but in others it has proven unsuccessful. The reasons for these different outcomes will be explored in regard to the extent to which "outsiders" have personally engaged with the peoples from whom the knowledge was originally imparted and the extent to which the outsiders have themselves Indigenised their own normative Western modes of information use.

Chambers, Jay G.; Parrish, Thomas B.; Esra, Phil E; Shkolnik, Jamie L. (2002).  How Does Spending on Special Education Students Vary across Districts? An Analysis of Spending by Urbanicity, District Size, Median Family Income, and Student Poverty Levels in 1999-2000. Report. Special Education Expenditure Project (SEEP). 

This document is one of a series of reports based on the Special Education Expenditure Project, a study of the nation's spending on special education and related services based on analysis of data for the 1999-2000 school year. This report focuses on general patterns of variation in total spending on special education students across districts categorized according to urbanicity, district size, median family income, and student poverty levels. A cost index is used to assess the effects on expenditure levels of geographic variations in the costs of education. A highlights section notes the following: (1) the smallest districts spend the most (districts with fewer than 2,500 students spend 22% more than the largest districts in cost-adjusted dollars to educate a special education student); (2) rural districts spend the most (in cost adjusted dollars), although urban districts spend the most in actual dollars; (3) the third of the districts with the lowest median family income spend less per student in both actual ($2,314) and cost-adjusted ($1,658) terms than districts with middle-income families; and (4) low-poverty districts have the lowest spending ratios (1.72 as compared with 1.98 for the highest-poverty quartile). Following an introduction, individual sections analyze: actual versus cost-adjusted expenditures; spending differences by urbanicity; spending differences by district size; spending differences by income level; and spending differences by student poverty. Appendices provide data on samples used and further analyses. | [FULL TEXT]

Champion, Jane Dimmitt; Kelly, Pat; Shain, Rochelle N.; Piper, Jeanna M. (2004).  Rural Mexican-American Adolescent Sexual Risk Behavior  Journal of Rural Health, 20, 3. 

There is a need for community-based, culturally sensitive, cognitive-behavioral interventions to reduce sexual risk behavior among minority adolescents. Studies of adolescent risk and protective behaviors have focused on identifying modifiable psychosocial variables that predict differential outcomes for subsequent intervention efforts. Research has been scarce in studies of rural minority adolescent women. To examine the protective and risk behaviors of these rural Mexican-American adolescent women and their relationship to physical or sexual abuse. Mexican-American adolescent women aged 14-19 years were recruited through a rural health clinic and administered a self-report assessment for protective and risk behavior and sexual, physical, and psychological abuse. Rural minority adolescent women endured high levels of psychological distress and many risk behaviors yet experienced few protective behaviors. Barriers to health care included access and confidentiality. Physically or sexually abused adolescents endured relatively greater risk and fewer protective behaviors than nonabused. Rural Mexican-American adolescent women may benefit from confidential identification and assessment of abuse history and risk and protective behaviors so that appropriate psychological treatment can accompany accessible medical treatment. The prevalence of risk behaviors and abuse among these women presents a need for development of behavioral interventions for risk reduction and promotion of health protective behaviors.

Chan, Leighton; Hart, L. Gary; Goodman, David C. (2006).  Geographic Access to Health Care for Rural Medicare Beneficiaries  Journal of Rural Health, 22, 2. 

Context: Patients in rural areas may use less medical care than those living in urban areas. This could be due to differences in travel distance and time and a utilization of a different mix of generalists and specialists for their care. Purpose: To compare the travel times, distances, and physician specialty mix of all Medicare patients living in Alaska, Idaho, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Washington. Methods: Retrospective design, using 1998 Medicare billing data. Travel time was determined by computing the road distance between 2 population centroids: the patient's and the provider's zone improvement plan codes. Findings: There were 2,220,841 patients and 39,780 providers in the cohort, including 6,405 (16.1%) generalists, 24,772 (62.3%) specialists, and 8,603 (21.6%) nonphysician providers. There were 20,693,828 patient visits during the study. The median overall 1-way travel distance and time was 7.7 miles (interquartile range 1.9-18.7 miles) and 11.7 minutes (interquartile range 3.0-25.7 minutes). The patients in rural areas needed to travel 2 to 3 times farther to see medical and surgical specialists than those living in urban areas. Rural residents with heart disease, cancer, depression, or needing complex cardiac procedures or cancer treatment traveled the farthest. Increasing rurality was also related to decreased visits to specialists and an increasing reliance on generalists. Conclusions: Residents of rural areas have increased travel distance and time compared to their urban counterparts. This is particularly true for rural residents with specific diagnoses or those undergoing specific procedures. Our results suggest that most rural residents do not rely on urban areas for much of their care.

Chance, Patti L. (2000).  Technology Tools for Data-Driven Decision Making: Promising Professional Development for Rural School Leaders. 

The Information Environment for School Leadership Preparation (IESLP) is a Web-based instructional system for educational administration preparation programs. The Web site presents a virtual rural school environment: a database of an actual rural school (using pseudonyms) containing information about students, teachers, school board members, test scores, curriculum, policies, and community demographics. It also presents problems that students are to address as school administrators. In an evaluation of the program, students were presented with a scenario concerning parent complaints about low student test scores. Students were organized into teams of four and required to prepare an analysis of student test scores and recommendations for a school improvement plan. Results indicated that after using IESLP, students tended to have a broader perspective on their approaches to decision making in that problems were more apt to be identified in terms of the total organization. Students showed a greater awareness of the use of many different kinds of data, not just peoples' perceptions, as essential sources of information for decision making. Students continued to value participatory decision-making but also indicated the need for people in the organization to possess the necessary information and data to make good decisions. Students reported gains in their professional use of technology in all areas, but especially in the use of spreadsheets and databases. Implications for educational administration preparation and professional development are discussed. | [FULL TEXT]

Chaplin, Hannah; Davidova, Sophia; Gorton, Matthew (2004).  Agricultural Adjustment and the Diversification of Farm Households and Corporate Farms in Central Europe  Journal of Rural Studies, 20, 1. 

Survey evidence from three Central European Countries (Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland) is analysed to identify the degree of non-agricultural farm diversification and the factors facilitating or impeding it in individual and corporate farms. The effect of diversification on rural job creation and household incomes is investigated. The results indicate that the level of diversification is relatively small and enterprise diversification by farmers is unlikely to generate sufficient new jobs to solve the problem of high rural unemployment. The attempt to transpose the West European model of agricultural diversification to the associated countries via the SAPARD programme is questionable, as non-farm centric rural policies appear to be more appropriate.

Chapman, Carrie; Knapczyk, Dennis (2003).  Integrating Web Conferencing and Field Work for Preparing Rural Special Educators. 

Distance learning can be a useful approach for preparing teachers who are mid-career changers or who are working on limited licenses, especially in rural areas. At Indiana University, the Collaborative Teacher Education Program uses multiple distance education technologies to provide special education teacher preparation in mild (high-incidence) disabilities at the certification and master's levels. One of the program's most used and most useful distance learning tools is web conferencing. The software program Sitescape Forum provides access to resources and several interactive environments: "forums" for whole-class asynchronous discussions of key concepts and issues, and "teams," in which groups of three or four students work on designated tasks, problem solve, and plan. Teams have synchronous chat capabilities. In the program's field work component, teams apply concepts and methods from a particular course to real classroom or schoolwide situations. In addition, each team project reflects state licensing standards for mild intervention and sub-topic areas covered in the course. Recent research related to the program has assessed the use of web conferencing to promote shared knowledge construction among student participants. The approach of integrating web conferencing with program and course components has proven a useful "survival tool" for rural special educators, overcoming barriers of geographic and professional isolation. | [FULL TEXT]

Chedzoy, S. M.; Burden, R. L. (2007).  Marking Time or Moving On: Student Perceptions of School Life in Year 8 and Their Attributions for Their Success and Failure in Learning  Research in Education, 77. 

This article reports on the changing perceptions of the educational experiences of students as they move through the school system in one secondary school in south-west England. As part of a longitudinal study students were asked to express their thoughts and feelings about life in year 8, often considered a year in which little progress is made and there is a "falling off" of attitudes to learning. Students were asked to give their opinions about their learning experiences in year 8, and whether they still enjoyed the subjects they had been looking forward to prior to transfer to the secondary school. They were also asked for the reasons they attributed to doing well or not doing well at school. Their views about the usefulness of homework were sought, and they offered suggestions for improving its usefulness. The majority of students in this large secondary school felt that they were not "marking time" and that they were working harder and learning more than they did in year 7. The research revealed gender differences with regard to the reasons for doing more or less well at school.

Cheesman, Nick (2003).  School, State and Sangha in Burma.  Comparative Education, 39, 1. 

The value of historical descriptive analysis in comparative education is highlighted by the method's application to schooling in Burma, demonstrating how control over schooling relates to state legitimacy. Supervision of Burmese education by Theravada Buddhist monasteries--Sangha--was undermined by 19th-century British colonial administration. The present autocratic military regime has forced the Sangha into a subordinate role in support of nationalist objectives.

Chenault, Venida S. (2008).  Three Sisters: Lessons of Traditional Story Honored in Assessment and Accreditation  Tribal College Journal of American Indian Higher Education, 19, 4. 

The three sisters story is shared across many tribes. It explains the practice of planting corn, beans, and squash together. The corn stalks provide support for the bean vines; the beans provide nitrogen for the corn; and the squash prevents weed growth between the mounds. Such stories explain not only the science of agricultural methods in tribal peoples' planting practices; they provide lessons about sacrifices made to meet the people's needs, the importance of reciprocal relationships, and the values that nurture the growth of products. This article describes the relevance of such teachings to the work of assessment, accreditation, and service without suggesting that assessment, accreditation, and service rise to the level of origin or creation stories. Instead this analogy implies that activities related to assessment, accreditation, and service are not new, but are concepts are well understood by tribal peoples. Assessment enables them to determine whether the seeds they plant today will produce the quality and number of graduates needed to serve the people tomorrow. Accreditation forces them to review the conditions they plant under and to evaluate whether they have the necessary resources to continue producing. Indigenous traditions require looking into the future and preparing to ensure the survival of the people.

Cheney, Helen; Willetts, Juliet; Wilson, Erin (2004).  It's More Than the Money: The Relationship between Social Values and Demographic Change in Sustaining a Rural General Practitioner Workforce  Rural Society, 14, 3. 

Historically, rural General Practitioners (GPs) in Australia tended to be male, Anglo, middle-class and in nuclear family structures, whereas the contemporary workforce demographic is increasingly female and of diverse ethnicity. Demographic trends and changing social values of university-educated professionals directly affect services in rural communities. GPs are key providers of primary health care in rural Australia. Despite the dedication of significant resources to recruiting and retaining rural GPs, a significant problem remains. This research project focused on identifying and addressing the family and personal support needs of two cohorts of rural female GPs and rural registrars, as a means of increasing retention in rural areas. In response to the complex and diverse needs articulated by rural GPs and their spouses during the project, the research team worked collaboratively with the participants to implement and evaluate a number of strategies. The project found that the strategies to address family and personal needs could be grouped into three areas: individualised strategies; strategies to do with practice restructure (predominantly aimed at achieving increased family time); and rural development strategies aimed at broader level change in the community. We argue that strategies addressing wider rural community needs (for example, recreation or children's education) are essential and require cross-sectoral approaches; to date, these have received little attention.

Chenoweth, Erica; Galliher, Renee V. (2004).  Factors Influencing College Aspirations of Rural West Virginia High School Students  Journal of Research in Rural Education, 19, 2. 

In the current study, we examined factors that influence rural West Virginia high school students' college attendance decisions. Using Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory of human development as a theoretical basis, we studied direct and indirect influences of environmental factors upon the academic aspirations of rural Appalachian youth. Individual adolescent characteristics; family, peer, and school contexts; and broader cultural influences were all implicated in predicting rural Appalachian students' academic aspirations. In addition, interesting differences emerged in patterns of prediction for males and females. Family and peer contexts emerged as more salient predictors of college aspirations for males, while variables associated with individual academic preparation and external barriers to college attendance were most salient for females. Considerations of cultural and economic conditions fairly unique to rural Appalachia and implications of the results for educators and policymakers working with Appalachian youth are discussed.

Chernogorov, Aleksandr (2005).  The Mutual Influence of Education and the Economy: Rural Schools on the Road of Development  Russian Education and Society, 47, 4. 

Almost fifty years ago, in the Cossack town of Grigoropolisskaia, Stavropol Krai, the first student production brigade was formed, a successful model on which to develop similar rural agricultural production schools throughout Russia. The student brigade constitutes a multifaceted school in which youngsters can learn how to work, govern, become involved in scientific work, and build relations in a collective. The brigade serves as the initial stage in ongoing education, with students moving on to primary professional education, agricultural college, and institutions of higher learning. Federal laws should be enacted to involve the Ministries of Education and Agriculture to fund rural agricultural schools throughout Russia.

Chesterfield, Ray; Enge, Kjell (2002).  The Guatemala Scholarship Program for Indigenous Girls: Do Demand-Side Interventions Work? 

Despite advances in primary school enrollment and completion in recent years, school completion in rural areas of Guatemala is low. The problem is especially severe among indigenous female students, where only about one in eight completes primary school. In 1997, the Guatemalan government launched an ambitious program designed to assist poor indigenous girls to remain in primary school (grades 1-4). In partnership with several nongovernmental organizations, a scholarship delivery system was created that was to reach 36,000 female students over 5 years. This paper examines the partnership arrangement, the relative costs of the program, and its success in increasing girls' school persistence. Promotion rates among children who began school in 1997 in the eight departments targeted by the scholarship program showed that the program had little effect on first-year wastage, an extremely serious problem in rural Guatemala. Over 40 percent of rural first-graders were not promoted, regardless of whether or not their schools were scholarship recipients. Schools with scholarship recipients had higher rates of promotion into fourth and fifth grades than did nonrecipient schools. In recipient schools, 17 percent of students received scholarships, but there was only a 2 percent difference in fourth-grade completion between schools with scholarship holders and those without. The difference in cost per fourth-grade graduate between recipient and nonrecipient schools was about twice the individual scholarship amount for 4 years.  | [FULL TEXT]

Chikani, Vatsal; Reding, Douglas; Gunderson, Paul; McCarty, Catherine A. (2005).  Psychosocial Work Characteristics Predict Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors and Health Functioning in Rural Women: The Wisconsin Rural Women's Health Study  Journal of Rural Health, 21, 4. 

Background: The aim of the present study is to investigate the association between psychosocial work characteristics and health functioning and cardiovascular disease risk factors among rural women of central Wisconsin and compare psychosocial work characteristics between farm and nonfarm women. Methods: Stratified sampling was used to select a random sample (n = 1500) of farm and nonfarm women aged 25 to 71 years from the Central Marshfield Epidemiologic Study Area. The baseline examination included measurements of blood pressure, height, weight, and fasting blood lipids, glucose, and insulin. Psychosocial job condition was measured with the Karasek Job Content Questionnaires (JCQ). Health functioning was assessed by the Short Form-36 Health Survey. Results: The analysis of JCQ showed that nonfarm residents were more likely to have jobs with high demand and high decision latitude compared to farm residents. Also, the farm residents (40.3%) were more likely to be occupied in passive jobs (jobs with low levels of demand and control) than the nonfarm residents (26.9%). Among farm residents, psychological job demand was associated with HDL level (beta = 0.17), triglycerides (beta = 0.0), their ratio (beta = 0.005), and blood insulin level (beta = 0.014), and among nonfarm residents, psychological job demand was associated with diastolic blood pressure (beta = 0.17) and total cholesterol level (beta = 0.002). Conclusion: Our results showed that rural farm residents had a higher prevalence of CVD risk factors and were more likely to be occupied in jobs with low levels of demand and control. Job stress predicted more CVD risk factors among farm residents compared to nonfarm residents. Therefore, interventions reducing job strain among rural farm residents are timely and necessary.

Chinyowa, Kennedy C. (2007).  Helping Them to Help Themselves: Case Study of an Integrated Popular Theatre Approach in Africa  Research in Drama Education, 12, 2. 

An outstanding problem that has haunted most development workers in Africa has been how to effectively engage rural communities who often have no access to modern technological media like newspapers, radio, television, video and film. The tendency has been for development workers to resort to top-down or blueprint development approaches that usually undermine the very purpose for which they were intended. Instead of inspiring community-driven action, such exogenous approaches tend to treat development as an event rather than a process. This article looks at an alternative development approach that has come to be called integrated popular theatre. In particular, the article focuses on a case study that demonstrates how development can be turned into a combined learning process between rural communities and outside experts. Integrated popular theatre thus marks an innovative paradigm shift in which the grassroots and development experts become partners in development.

Christensen, Gayle S.; Amerikaner, Ary; Klasik, Daniel; Cohodes, Sarah (2007).  Evaluation of Flexibility Under "No Child Left Behind": Volume III--The Rural Education Achievement Program (REAP Flex)  [US Department of Education] 

This study focuses on flexibility provisions in the Rural Education Achievement Program (REAP) provision of NCLB. Specifically, it addresses REAP Flex, a program that allows rural districts additional control over how to spend portions of their federal funding. REAP Flex is part of a series of NCLB flexibility initiatives aimed at rural schools. The four primary findings of this study were: (1) Half of eligible districts participated in the REAP Flex program; (2) REAP Flex authority was most often used to provide additional funds for services under Title I, Part A. Districts also commonly used REAP Flex to focus on programs related to Title V, Part A (State Grants for Innovative Programs), and Title II, Part D (Educational Technology State Grants). The program funds most commonly used for other program purposes came from Title II, Part A (Improving Teacher Quality State Grants), and Title IV, Part A (Safe and Drug-Free Schools and Communities); (3) Districts focused their efforts on targeting low-performing student subgroups and raising reading and math outcomes via improvements in technology and teacher quality; and (4) The primary reason eligible districts do not participate in REAP Flex is a lack of information. The main reason districts do participate is to address funding restrictions. The following are appended: (1) Methodology; (2) Data Tables with Standard Errors; (3) REAP Flex Authority District Administrator Survey; and (4) REAP Flex Authority District Interview Protocols.  [This report was prepared for the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development, Policy and Program Studies Service by the Urban Institute.] | [FULL TEXT]

Christie, Kathy (2005).  Stateline: Governors Speak  Phi Delta Kappan, 86, 8. 

Beginning each January, governors summarize accomplishments, present challenges, and propose solutions. As one might expect, a certain amount of rhetoric accompanies the listing of accomplishments. But when that rhetoric is stripped away, patterns of gubernatorial focus can be seen. Some of these patterns might be linked to common state conditions, such as economic downturns, taxation issues, or even court-mandated school finance fixes. Others might have bubbled up from such organizations as the National Governors Association or the Education Commission of the States--organizations that enable governors to focus on pressing issues and to network with their peers.

Chunlan, He (2006).  Nongovernmental Organizations and the Development of China's Education  Chinese Education & Society, 39, 1. 

The confluence of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) with the development of China's education is not a mere chance encounter. On August 27, 2004, the author took part in the designing of a meeting held in Beijing by the Twenty First Century Education Salon that received support from the Ford Foundation. Jointly organized by the Twenty-first Century Educational Development Research Institute and the Education Weekly of the Chinese People's Consultative Conference Journal, the Salon took as its main topic "NGOs and the Development of Chinese Education." Participants at the meeting said that this was the first symposium held in China that linked NGOs with the development of China's education. This gathering provided people with two revelations: (1) Voluntarism and NGOs hold enormous significance for China's education. However, the attention given in all quarters--from the government to academic circles and including people who study and formulate policies to the development of NGOs in education--is obviously quite inadequate; and (2) Education has always been a field in which NGOs can play a major role, and as far as NGO people participating in education or NGO people who intend to engage in educational practice are concerned, each party will find that the other possesses profound learning and fairly high professional thresholds. By tracing the footsteps and pronouncements of NGOs active in the educational field in 2004, the author hopes to share some general information about the existence and development of these NGOs and offer some understanding of their tentative efforts in terms of China's education and future trends of development in related fields.

Churchill, Lisa R.; Jensen, Mary C.; Cepello, Michelle (2001).  Finding and Keeping the Best: A Rural Regional Partnership. 

California State University, Chico, and 47 rural school districts in northeastern California collaborate on an on-the-job teacher preparation program designed to alleviate the shortage of qualified special education teachers and reduce teacher isolation. The university provides televised or Web-based courses, regional supervision, and separate course sections for interns. Public schools guarantee 10 paid release days annually to attend classes. Tuition stipends, mentors, and evaluation are supported through state and federal grants. This program's unique features include inter-institutional processes, cohort formation, accessible and relevant information, electronic network connection, and intern teacher support. Evaluation findings indicate a significant increase in graduates' ability to teach and work with pupils, parents, and other teachers. Graduate retention rates exceed state and national levels for rural special educators. A major challenge identified was challenging working conditions--special education teachers, particularly in rural settings, deal with pupils who have severe learning and emotional difficulties in mainstreamed settings that do not always meet pupil needs. Perhaps the most significant lesson learned in the rural partnership was the importance of building and maintaining personal relationships across the vast region. Building such relationships takes time but is key to a successful partnership. Funding sources, legislators, and participants need to recognize that it takes 3-5 years for such a collaborative partnership to show results. | [FULL TEXT]

Cicchinelli, Louis F.; Dean, Ceri B. (2005).  It's All about the Quality of Advice, Guidance, and Research for Rural Educators: A Rejoinder to Howley, Theobald, and Howley  Journal of Research in Rural Education, 20, 19. 

Howley, Theobald, and Howley (2005) appear to focus on two major issues in their reply to the McREL review (Arnold, Newman, Gaddy, & Dean, 2005): (a) the utility of quantitative study of schools in the "rural lifeworld," and (b) the motivation of McREL staff members for reviewing the content and methods of existing rural education research. The underlying premise of the authors' review of rural research is that all children and schools, including those in rural settings, deserve access to the very best information about high-quality and effective schooling. While Howley et al. may choose to see the authors' belief that rigorous research can improve schools as "hubris," the authors view it as practical wisdom.

_____. (2004).  City & Rural KIDS COUNT Data Book. KIDS COUNT Special Report  [Annie E. Casey Foundation] 

This publication provides the objective data needed to track and monitor the well-being of children in different types of American communities. It is part of the ongoing work of the Casey Foundation -- advanced primarily through our KIDS COUNT initiative -- designed to give policymakers data that can help them better understand how conditions of families in their communities stack up against those in other communities across the country. Objective, scientific data provide the best foundation for informed debate and sound policy decisions. This special edition of the KIDS COUNT Data Book, was produced in an effort to elevate the understanding and awareness of conditions faced by children in the largest cities and in rural communities. By providing a consistent, reliable set of child well-being indicators, readers are invited to compare child outcomes for types of communities within their state or compare communities of similar types across states. These kinds of comparisons are provocative, and hopefully, they will lead to improved outcomes for kids and families regardless of where they live. Ultimately, disadvantaged kids in America would be better served by emphasizing the similarities in their plight, rather than stressing the differences. Appended are: (1) Rural Areas of States Ranked by Indicator; and (2) 50 Largest Cities Ranked by Indicator. Also included are: Definitions and Data Sources; and Primary Contacts for State KIDS COUNT Projects. [Data for this report compiled by Population Reference Bureau.] | [FULL TEXT]

Civil, Marta (2006).  Working towards Reform in Mathematics Education: Parents', Teachers', and Students' Views of "Different." Working Paper No. 31  [Appalachian Collaborative Center for Learning, Assessment, and Instruction in Mathematics (ACCLAIM)] 

This essay is a reflection on several aspects related to my encounters with the concept of reform in mathematics education. I start with an exploration of the question of what is reform, grounded on my work with teachers in a project aimed at promoting reform. I focus on two aspects that seem to be present in most approaches to reform--group work and mathematical discussions--and in particular on implications related to equity and the participation of all students when implementing these practices. This takes me to my research in low-income, Latino communities and my efforts to bridge home/community mathematics and school mathematics. I address the notion of valorization of knowledge and the reactions to "difference," particularly in the context of immigration. I illustrate aspects of these reactions with data from parents, preservice teachers, and students.  [Paper presented at the ACCLAIM Research Symposium 3, Mathematics Education: Reform and Resistance in the Lifeworlds of Rural Schools and Communities, Cherry Valley Lodge, OH, May 18-20, 2006.] | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2007).  ClassWide Peer Tutoring. What Works Clearinghouse Intervention Report 

"ClassWide Peer Tutoring" ("CWPT") is a peer-assisted instructional strategy designed to be integrated with most existing reading curricula. This approach provides students with increased opportunities to practice reading skills by asking questions and receiving immediate feedback from a peer tutor. Pairs of students take turns tutoring each other to reinforce concepts and skills initially taught by the teacher. The teacher creates age-appropriate peer teaching materials for the peer tutors; these materials take into account tutees' language skills and disabilities. Although "CWPT" can be used in subject areas other than reading, this report focuses on "CWPT" for beginning reading for elementary school grade levels, which emphasizes reading fluency and comprehension skills. The What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) reviewed 12 studies on "CWPT." One study of "CWPT" met the WWC evidence standards. The study included more than 200 students from six urban elementary schools in Kansas. Based on this one study, the WWC found potentially positive effects on general reading achievement.  [This publication was produced by the What Works Clearinghouse. The following study is reviewed in this intervention report: Greenwood, C. R., Terry, B., Utley, C. A., Montagna, D., and Walker, D. (1993). Achievement placement and services: Middle school benefits of ClassWide Peer Tutoring used at the elementary school. "School Psychology Review," 22(3), 497-516.] | [FULL TEXT]

Clare, Mary M.; Jimenez, Anna; McClendon, Jennifer (2005).  Toma el Tiempo: The Wisdom of Migrant Families in Consultation  Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 16, 1&2. 

Children of migrant farm working families often live and learn in conditions that conspire against both health and education. At the same time, these children are as capable as any in our nation. Education and health care professionals are frequently in positions to support these capabilities and migrant families can be significant contributors to the success of education and health programs. However, the variables obstructing collaboration with migrant families are numerous and often go unidentified. More invisible are the variables supporting natural and positive inclusion of these families in problem-solving processes. This article reveals both barriers and avenues to connecting with migrant farm working families so their children may gain greater benefits from health and educational services.

Clark, Amy Aparicio; Dorris, Amanda (2007).  Partnering with Latino Parents  Education Digest: Essential Readings Condensed for Quick Review, 72, 7. 

A growing body of research confirms that parents have a profound impact on their children's educational attainment, particularly in the secondary grades. Yet many Latino parents, particularly those of first-generation college students, lack information and knowledge about what their children need to prepare for college and are less likely to help them select high school courses or discuss college options. To involve parents, schools should learn about the local community and find people who can act as linguistic and cultural liaisons. Through these liaisons, chools can help parents develop advocacy skills and give them opportunities to put those skills into action. Some examples of liaison programs in action are discussed.

Clark, Carrie; Hunley, Allen (2007).  Freshman Academies on a Shoestring  Principal Leadership, 7 n7 p41, 43. 

Regardless of where they live, incoming freshmen face the same problems nationwide, such as anxiety about entering a new school, social pressure, and increased academic pressure and responsibility. Freshman academies have been introduced in many larger schools to offset these issues. A typical freshman academy isolates freshmen from the rest of the student population using a school-within-a-school model. The goals of a typical academy are to provide structure, to provide a sense of belonging, and to ease the transition into high school while integrating content and increasing communication between teachers and parents. Some large schools have received federal grant money to implement such academies, but these grants do not target rural schools. At Muhlenberg South High School in rural Greenville, Kentucky, a freshman academy has been developed that does not rely on grants or outside resources. The academy uses a modified block schedule. Core subjects are taught using a middle school model and electives are taught in a block schedule model. Increased communication between parents, students, and teachers eases anxiety about starting high school. The academy has shown success in a number ways, but it is constantly evaluated and modified to meet the ever-changing needs of the students.

Clark, D. Anthony Tyeeme; Powell, Malea (2008).  Resisting Exile in the "Land of the Free:" Indigenous Groundwork at Colonial Intersections   American Indian Quarterly, 32, 1. 

The guest editorialists argue in this introduction that the phrase "indigenous groundwork at colonial intersections" identifies versatile cultural, historical, and social processes that fundamentally--at times devastatingly--shape relations among differently situated life forms on this planet. In short, Indigenous groundwork marks Indigenous epistemologies that inform identities, resistances, and survivals. Understood as resistances to hegemony yet still as struggles for hegemony (or, better, hegemonies), Indigenous groundwork names long-standing responsibilities to the well-defined and marked landscapes on this planet that Original Peoples call home and those starting places that make us and therefore require our honor and respect. It also denotes a political praxis, a relational form of mediation moving along a circuitous path of existence--destruction--continued existence toward critical consciousness. In those empowering sites of critical consciousness, assuming it is not incorporated into dominant power and privilege, Indigenous groundwork provides intellectual bases that authorize resistance to exile in the "land of the free." As the authors of the four articles comprising this special issue of "American Indian Quarterly" suggest, Indigenous groundwork offers community people a robust and rigorous praxis; for academically based intellectuals it motivates the formation of compelling analytical frameworks and critical theories with broad and therapeutic applications and the promise of forging webs of relationship simultaneously inside and outside the academy. It is the basis for an Indigenous critical theory.

Clark, David; Southern, Rebekah; Beer, Julian (2007).  Rural Governance, Community Empowerment and the New Institutionalism: A Case Study of the Isle of Wight  Journal of Rural Studies, 23, 2. 

This article compares two different institutional models--state-sponsored rural partnerships and community-based development trusts--for engaging and empowering local communities in area-based regeneration, using the Isle of Wight as a case study. Following a critical review of the literature on community governance, we evaluate the effectiveness of community involvement in the Island's small towns through a comparison of the performance of the two development trusts in Cowes and Ryde, on the one hand, and that of the partnerships established under the Market Towns Initiative in Sandown, Shanklin and Ventnor, on the other. We conclude that both models reflect the structuring effect of central, regional and local state steering of the Island's regeneration policy community but also that a "development trust effect" is observable in one location (Ryde), due to a capacity to stimulate new forms of community enterprise and to successfully alter political relationships within the local community. These findings support a "new institutionalist" account of community empowerment which emphasises the importance of contextual variation and locally specific processes of institutionalisation rather than the determining effect of institutional design per se.

Clark, Molly M.; Davis, Ed (2007).  Engaging Leaders as Builders of Sustainable Rural Communities: A Case Study  New Directions for Community Colleges, 2007, 137. 

This chapter describes a "grow-your-own" leader development program that emphasizes cross-disciplinary, multisector programs and activities that reinforce the community-building role of rural community, junior, and technical colleges.

Clarke, Ardy SixKiller (2002).  Social and Emotional Distress among American Indian and Alaska Native Students: Research Findings. ERIC Digest. 

Many American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) youth are repeatedly exposed to opportunities to participate in self-destructive and illegal behaviors. This digest examines risk factors associated with four contexts: peers, family, school, and community. Recent research has shown that, relative to national averages, AI/AN youth have higher rates of illicit drug use, reckless behaviors involving motor vehicles, and suicide. There is also considerable anecdotal evidence of increasing gang activity among AI/AN students. Family factors impacting students' risk-taking behaviors and academic outcomes include presence or absence of strong traditional values; the legacy of the boarding school era, which disrupted intergenerational transmission of culture and child-rearing skills; family alienation from mainstream institutions; and high incidence of poverty and of households headed by young women. School conditions and racism may lead to student alienation and dropping out. Many reservation communities adversely affect AI/AN youth through high rates of alcoholism, drug abuse, domestic and other violence, child neglect, poverty, substandard housing, and unemployment. Additionally, in poor communities, schools are poorer and less successful. Resiliency research has shown that individuals and organizations can protect children exposed to community and family distress. | [FULL TEXT]

Clarke, Nick; Cloke, Paul; Barnett, Clive; Malpass, Alice (2008).  The Spaces and Ethics of Organic Food  Journal of Rural Studies, 24, 3. 

Initial assessments of the potential for organic food systems have offered an optimistic interpretation of the progressive political and ethical characteristics involved. This positive gloss has prompted a stream of critique emphasising the need to explore the ambiguities and disconnections inherent therein. In this paper, we consider the case of Riverford Organic Vegetables, arguably the largest supplier of organic vegetables in the UK, and suggest that existing debates assume too much about the "goods" and "rights" of organic food and leave important questions about the spaces and ethics of organic food. We argue that, in the case of Riverford, the space of organic food production and distribution is neither the small, local, counter-cultural farm nor the large, transnational, corporate firm. Rather, simultaneously, the spaces of organic food production and distribution are the national network, the regional distribution system and the local farm. In addition, in the case of Riverford, the ethics of organic food exhibit few grand designs (of environmental sustainability, for example). Rather, the ethics of organic food are best characterised as: "ordinary," since they relate to concerns about taste, value for money, care within the family and so on; "diverse," since multiple practices steer the production and distribution of organic food; and "graspable," in that both vegetables and box have material and symbolic presence for consumers.

Clayton, Berwyn; Blom, Kaaren; Bateman, Andrea; Carden, Pam (2004).  What Works Where You Are? The Implementation of Training Packages in Rural Australia: Support Document  [National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER)] 

This document was produced by the authors based on their research for the report "What Works Where You Are? The Implementation of Training Packages in Rural Australia" [ED495190] and is an added resource for further information. The original report investigates the implementation of training packages in five rural communities, and the strategies providers, community and industry stakeholders use to achieve positive outcomes. This support document presents as appendices: (1) Literature Review; (2) Methodology; (3) Information to Participants; (4) Focus Questions; (5) Consent Form; (6) Project Reference Group; and (7) Community Profiles. | [FULL TEXT]

Clements, Douglas H. (2007).  Curriculum Research: Toward a Framework for "Research-based Curricula"  Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 38, 1. 

Government agencies and members of the educational research community have petitioned for research-based curricula. The ambiguity of the phrase "research-based", however, undermines attempts to create a shared research foundation for the development of, and informed choices about, classroom curricula. This article presents a framework for the construct of research-based curricula. One implication is that traditional strategies such as market research and research-to-practice models are insufficient; more adequate is the use of multiple phases of the proffered Curriculum Research Framework.

Clemmons, Linda M. (2005).  "We Will Talk of Nothing Else": Dakota Interpretations of the Treaty of 1837  Great Plains Quarterly, 25, 3. 

During treaty negotiations with federal Indian agents in 1851, Taoyateduta (Little Crow), a Dakota representative, warned that the council members would "talk of nothing else" until conflicts related to the previous Treaty of 1837 had been resolved. His statement is surprising, given that government officials at the time, as well as subsequent historians, have interpreted the Treaty of 1837 as an uncontroversial, even positive, event for both the Dakota and the federal government. Instead, Taoyateduta's words illustrate the continued Dakota disillusionment and anger with the document, close to fifteen years after the Treaty of 1837 went into effect. Nearly thirty years ago, anthropologist Raymond D. Fogelson called for ethnohistorians to study Native interpretations of historical events.

Cloke, Paul; Johnsen, Sarah; May, Jon (2007).  The Periphery of Care: Emergency Services for Homeless People in Rural Areas  Journal of Rural Studies, 23, 4. 

Until recently, homelessness in rural areas has received little recognition because of overwhelming assumptions about the urban-centeredness of homeless people and their needs. This paper seeks to build on recent research that has begun to uncover some of the problems and characteristics of rural homelessness, by suggesting two significant dynamics which together can shape the experience of different groups of homeless people in rural environments. First, rural places reflect particular local qualities which contextualize both the circumstances of homelessness and the provision of services in response to those circumstances. Secondly, the contemporary governance of homelessness unfolds rather unevenly in different rural areas, producing distinct local service environments with varying degrees of "insider" and "outsider" status in relation to joined-up responses to the needs of homeless people. These dynamics are articulated through three case studies: a remote friary in a deep rural area of southern England; a small hostel run by a vibrant non-statutory organization in a small town in the west of England, and two advice centers in a coastal resort in the north-east of England. Through these case studies we highlight the importance of both local reactions to the homeless other, and local relations between central government funding, local authority initiatives and charitable organizations, in the production and consumption of spaces of care in settings set in, or serving, rural environments.

Clopton, Kerri L.; Knesting, Kimberly (2006).  Rural School Psychology: Re-Opening the Discussion  Journal of Research in Rural Education, 21, 5. 

The practice of school psychology in rural areas is a topic that has been fairly absent from the literature since the 1980s. A needs assessment of school psychologists practicing in rural counties in a midwestern state was conducted to explore current issues for rural school psychologists. The response rate for usable surveys was 72% (N = 106). Respondents answered questions regarding travel, supervision, professional development, practice, and the rewards and challenges of working in rural communities. The limited availability of support services in the community, feelings of professional isolation, work space, and travel time were issues of concern to the respondents. Recommendations, including implications for practitioners and trainers, are provided.

Coates, Hamish; Krause, Kerri-Lee (2005).  Investigating Ten Years of Equity Policy in Australian Higher Education  Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 27, 1. 

This paper reports issues arising from a longitudinal study of 1991 to 2002 Australian higher education equity data. The national equity framework uses an empirical performance indicator system to monitor access, participation, success and retention of six designated equity groups. The paper examines three possible approaches for defining new groups. It finds no support for an exploratory empirical approach, or for an approach based on definitions of multiple disadvantage, but supports an approach which takes account of secondary school attendance. A case is made for a more sophisticated and contextualised approach to national reporting, to increase the responsiveness and productivity of the policy framework. While the benefits of a national equity policy framework are acknowledged, the paper proposes possibilities for new approaches to monitoring and measuring disadvantage in higher education.

Cobb, Daniel M. (2007).  Devils in Disguise: The Carnegie Project, the Cherokee Nation, and the 1960s  American Indian Quarterly, 31, 3. 

In this article, the author talks about the experiences of many of the people involved in the Carnegie Project, an effort in the 1960s to establish ties with the "tribal community"--people who spoke Cherokee as their first language and lived in small kin-related settlements spread across five counties in northeastern Oklahoma--and directly involve them in a program to promote literacy in English. The story that emerges is not merely about a squabble between Indians and anthropologists in the state of Oklahoma. Instead it is about how Native and non-Native people engaged in the politics of community, identity, poverty, and power in Cold War America. Historians regard the 1960s as a tumultuous decade in which longstanding assumptions regarding who could speak, about what topics, and through which discursive procedures were called into question. These were years of disillusionment and anger, of divisions that left deep wounds in need of healing. The Cherokee Nation stood at the center, not the margins, of this history. Situating the story of the Carnegie Project in the context of a culture at war with itself allows one to see that there were no devils in disguise, only people who seemed that way amidst the confusion of troubled times.

Cobbold, Cosmas (2006).  Attracting and Retaining Rural Teachers in Ghana: The Premise and Promise of a District Sponsorship Scheme  Journal of Education for Teaching: International Research and Pedagogy, 32, 4. 

Recruiting and retaining qualified teachers for schools in rural communities is both an issue and a problem in many countries. The very nature of rural communities and perceptions of teaching in such environments tend to discourage qualified experienced and new teachers from taking appointments there. Education jurisdictions, therefore, use various strategies either to compel or entice candidates to accept rural teaching appointments. This paper describes a district sponsorship scheme to attract candidates for teacher training and subsequent appointment in rural schools in Ghana. The paper describes how the scheme operates and assesses its potential to attract and retain teachers, using data obtained through analysis of documents, interviews with key education officers and focus group with teachers. Though the district sponsorship scheme is not new in many education jurisdictions, it is the first of its kind in Ghana. Suggestions for improving the scheme's effectiveness are offered, drawing attention to the need to complement financial incentives with non-monetary measures in rural teacher recruitment and retention policies. District sponsorship of teacher trainees is appended.

Coburn, Andrew F.; Wakefield, Mary; Casey, Michelle; Moscovice, Ira; Payne, Susan; Loux, Stephenie (2004).  Assuring Rural Hospital Patient Safety: What Should Be the Priorities?  Journal of Rural Health, 20, 4. 

Context: Since reports on patient safety were issued by the Institute of Medicine, a number of interventions have been recommended and standards designed to improve hospital patient safety, including the Leapfrog, evidence-based safety standards. These standards are based on research conducted largely in urban hospitals, and it may not be possible to generalize them to rural hospitals. Purpose: The absence of rural-relevant patient safety standards and interventions may diminish purchaser and public perceptions of rural hospitals, further undermining the financial stability of rural hospitals. This study sought to assess the current evidence concerning rural hospital patient safety and to identify a set of ruralrelevant patient safety interventions that the majority of small rural hospitals could readily implement and that rural hospitals, purchasers, consumers, and others would find relevant and useful. These interventions should help rural hospitals prioritize patient safety efforts. Methods: As background, we reviewed literature; interviewed representatives of provider, payer, consumer, and governmental groups in 8 states; and calculated patient safety indicator rates in rural hospitals using the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality?s Health Care Cost and Utilization Project National Inpatient Sample. Based on the research literature and patient safety recommendations from national organizations, we developed a list of potentially important patient safety areas for rural hospitals. The rural relevance of these safety interventions was evaluated by a national expert panel in terms of the frequency of the problem, ability to implement, and the internal and external value to rural providers, purchasers, and consumers. Findings: The limited available research suggests that patient safety events and medical errors may be less likely to occur in rural than in urban hospitals.We identified 9 areas of patient safety and 26 priority patient safety interventioospiany of the identified areas of patient safety and interventions are relevant to all types of hospitals, not just rural hospitals. However, some areas, such as transfers, are especially relevant to rural hospitals. The challenges of implementing some interventions, such as 24/7 pharmacy coverage, are

Coladarci, Theodore (2003).  Gallup Goes to School: The Importance of Confidence Intervals for Evaluation "Adequate Yearly Progress" in Small Schools. Policy Brief  [Rural School and Community Trust] 

Indicators of school-level achievement, such as the percentage of students who are proficient in a particular content area, are subject to random year-to-year variation in much the same way that the results of an opinion poll will vary from one random sample to another. This random variation, which is more pronounced for a small school, should be taken into account by education officials when evaluating school progress in a policy climate of high stakes. To do otherwise is to unnecessarily risk the false identification of a failing school. In this monograph, I describe the application of confidence intervals to the evaluation of "adequate yearly progress" for No Child Left Behind (NCLB). Throughout, I demonstrate the particular relevance of confidence intervals for small schools. Upon completion, readers will understand why 27 states included confidence intervals in their NCLB accountability plans (and perhaps wonder why the remaining states did not).  | [FULL TEXT]

Coladarci, Theodore (2006).  School Size, Student Achievement, and the "Power Rating" of Poverty: Substantive Finding or Statistical Artifact?  [Online Submission] 

The proportion of variance in student achievement that is explained by student SES-"poverty's power rating," as some dub it--tends to be lower among smaller schools than among larger schools. Small schools, many claim, are able to somehow disrupt the seemingly axiomatic association between SES and student achievement. Using eighth-grade data for 215 public schools in Maine, I explored the hypothesis that this is part of a statistical artifact of the greater volatility (lower reliability) of school-aggregated student achievement in smaller schools. This hypothesis was supported when the dependent variable was mathematics achievement. In contrast, this hypothesis received no support when reading achievement served as the dependent variable. Implications for subsequent research are discussed.  | [FULL TEXT]

Coladarci, Theodore (2007).  Improving the Yield of Rural Education Research: An Editor's Swan Song   Journal of Research in Rural Education, 22, 3. 

In my 15th and final year as JRRE editor, I identify methodological and substantive shortcomings in the rural education research literature and, in turn, suggest strategies for improvement. I structure my observations around the following considerations: describing the rural context of research, making the rural argument, framing the research question, drawing on other disciplines, synthesizing the extant research, and distinguishing between (a) exploring empirical questions and (b) adducing data to support personal convictions.

Coladarci, Theodore; Hancock, Julie (2002).  The (Limited) Evidence Regarding Effects of Grade-Span Configurations on Academic Achievement: What Rural Educators Should Know. ERIC Digest. 

Grade-span configuration refers to the range of grades within a school. Grade span is an important issue to various factions in public education, including advocates of middle schools and rural educators concerned with the association between grade fragmentation and school consolidation. This digest focuses on research that has examined the relationship between grade span and student achievement. While many case studies of grade-span effects in particular schools exist, little research has been done using techniques to control for confounding factors. Five studies using such techniques are briefly described. These used data from 18 New York City schools, 700 rural Louisiana schools, 1,001 Texas schools, 163 rural Maine schools, and 330 Pennsylvania schools. In general, the studies suggest that achievement in the middle grades is higher in schools having an elementary-wide configuration than in those with a middle-grades configuration. In a K-8 configuration, absence of school-to-school transitions and greater continuity of experience may contribute to higher achievement. However, only one of the studies considered the instructional or interpersonal dimensions of school life. Further research is needed to disentangle the effects of grade span from those of its corollaries. | [FULL TEXT]

Coldarci, Theodore (2006).  Do Smaller Schools Really Reduce the "Power Rating" of Poverty?  Rural Educator, 28, 1. 

The percentage of variance in student achievement that is explained by student SES--"poverty's power rating," as some call it--tends to be less among smaller schools than among larger schools. Smaller schools, we are told, are able to somehow disrupt the association between SES and student achievement. Using eighth-grade data for 215 public schools in Maine, I explored the hypothesis that this finding is in part a statistical artifact of the lower reliability of school-aggregated student achievement in smaller schools. This hypothesis was supported for mathematics achievement but seemingly not for reading achievement. Implications are discussed.  | [FULL TEXT]

Cole, Howard (2000).  Gender and Computer Use at a Rural Island School. 

The differences between computer use and gender were investigated at a rural island junior/senior high school with a majority of Pacific Island students. The school is located on the island of Tinian in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. During a 9-week period, students recorded the amount of time and what they were using the computer for on sign-in sheets. Four computers located in the resource center, in the counselor's office, were used for the study. From an analysis of the sign-in sheets, it was learned that there were no differences between the amount of use of these computers and the student's gender. It was found, however, that female students did more word processing than male students. Female students seemed to use computers more often than male students, but this difference was not statistically significant. Problems with using student sign-in sheets appeared. Many students did not completely fill in all items on the sheets. In a future study, software should be used to monitor student computer use. Results of this study are in line with other studies that have shown that female students do more word processing than male students, and that the educational use of technology may be becoming more equitable in the United States.   | [FULL TEXT]

Collet, Penelope J. (2004).  The Role of Art and Craft Collections in Teacher Training Institutions in Australia  International Journal of Art and Design Education, 23, 1. 

In postwar Australia, rapid population growth increased the demand for teachers. The colleges at Ballarat and Bendigo were revived and expanded by the Victorian Government. At Bendigo in 1955 F. M. Courtis, Head of Art Education, acquired art works initiating a valuable and significant teaching resource at the College. The study of the Courtis Collection raised obvious questions about the role of collections in the early teaching colleges and what events or factors led to their beginnings. This case study will be situated within a broader picture of art and craft collections in institutions across three states. My discussions in this paper are framed by some of Raymond Williams' notions about country and city and the contrast between country and city, as fundamental ways of life. I hope to demonstrate the important role art and craft collections have played in visual arts education in country institutions.

Collier, Pam; King, Sharijn; Lawrence, Kate; Nangala, Irene; Nangala, Marilyn; Schaber, Evelyn; Young, Metta; Guenther, John; Oster, John (2007).  Growing the Desert: Educational Pathways for Remote Indigenous People. Support Document  [National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER)] 

As part of a project funded by the National Centre for Vocational Education and Research (NCVER) and the Desert Knowledge CRC (DKCRC), the "Growing the desert" research team have conducted a broad-ranging analysis of the role of formal and non-formal training opportunities that lead to employment and enterprise opportunities in the desert region of central Australia. In the third and final stage of the project, the team prepared four case studies of Indigenous training exemplars. The following case studies are presented in this Support Document: (1) The Murdi Paaki Healthy Housing Worker Program--Replicable Outcomes; (2) DESART--Building on Strengths: Arts Cultures, Futures; (3) Waltja Tjutangku Palyapayi: Organisational and Individual Journeys; and (4) Newmont Tanami Case Study. This document was produced by the authors based on their research for the report, "Growing the Desert: Educational Pathways for Remote Indigenous People" [ED499683], and is an added resource for further information.  [This work has been produced with funding provided through the Australian Department of Education, Science and Training.] | [FULL TEXT]

Collins, Crystal; Lenard, Matthew (2007).  SREB States Lead the Nation in Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate Programs. Challenge to Lead  [Southern Regional Education Board (SREB)] 

Advanced Placement (AP) and International Baccalaureate (IB) courses continue to receive national recognition for their rigorous curricula, and many colleges and universities award credit to students who score well on end-of-course exams in AP classes. Research suggests that students are better prepared for college if they take these courses and the related exams, even if they do not score high enough on the exam to earn college credit. In Southern Regional Educational Board (SREB) states, the average percentage of graduating seniors who took at least one AP exam increased at a faster rate than in the nation from 2000 to 2006. All SREB states increased their participation rates during this time, and all states increased or maintained their participation rates from 2005 to 2006. The average percentage of students taking AP exams in SREB states rose 10 percent since 2000 and 2 percent since 2005. The report recommends that policymakers continue to monitor the participation and performance rates of all groups of students in AP programs, set targets for increasing these rates, and support student efforts to take AP courses and exams. To ensure that all students, especially those in underrepresented groups, have opportunities to succeed in a rigorous, college-preparatory high school curriculum, the following strategies are recommended: (1) Make AP and/or IB courses available to every student in every school; (2) Offer every student access to more advanced courses through a state virtual school, at no cost to the student; (3) Pay student testing fees, especially for low-income families; (4) Provide funding to train teachers who are eligible to teach AP courses; (5) Give incentives for schools to expand AP and IB offerings; and (6) Award bonuses to teachers and schools whose students perform well on these exams.

Collins, Susan (2003).  Helping Rural Schools Achieve Success.  State Education Standard, 4, 1. 

Senator Collins of Maine plans to fight for proper federal funding of the Rural Education Achievement Program (REAP) that allows rural schools to combine federal funding sources. Collins, and Senator Dianne Feinstein, will soon introduce legislation that will eliminate inequities in the current Social Security law that penalize teachers and other public employees for working in the private sector when they retire.

Collins, Timothy (2005).  In Pursuit of Best Practices: A Research Agenda for Rural Education in Illinois. Rural Research Report. Volume 16, Issue 7, Summer 2005  [Illinois Institute for Rural Affairs] 

This report discusses the need for a research agenda to understand how rural public schools can work with their communities to improve student performance while building the community. It focuses on the potential strengths of school-community relationships. Described herein are four community engagement models a school can adopt: (1) School as Community Center, a lifelong learning center, and a vehicle for delivering services; (2) Community as Curriculum, emphasizing the community in all of its complexities as part of students' learning activities in the classroom; (3) School as a Developer of Entrepreneurial skills, suggesting that small businesses, including knowledge-based enterprises, can create new jobs, especially if they find the right market niche; and (4) Schools and Technology, in which new technologies help build and preserve community while linking students to the rest of the world. [Portions of this report are adapted from the author's article, "Rural Schools and Their Communities: Perspectives on Interdependence," which was published in the Winter 2001 issue of "The ERIC Review."]

Collins, Timothy; Dewees, Sarah (2001).  Distance Education: Taking Classes to the Students.  [Rural South: Preparing for the Challenges of the 21st Century] 

Technological advances have equipped educational institutions with the capability to take classes to the student. Higher education institutions throughout the South are upgrading existing wide-area networks connecting buildings and campuses to create statewide "backbones" that will serve primary and secondary schools, libraries, offices, and homes. Such technology will overcome geographic barriers to access. Challenges involved with implementing distance education include the need to handle organizational, management, and educational changes over the short and long term; limited access to quality programming among certain populations defined by race, social class, or geography; the need for teachers to learn new approaches to teaching, monitoring, and mentoring to adequately serve their students; and the need for standards of quality for new programs. Success factors for effective use of wide-area networks include support from educational institutions and governments that facilitates sustained interest and funding; development of new organizations to handle technology's rapid change; planning and management processes that are open and participatory so that affected parties, including the private sector, have input; effective leadership by education agencies; concentration of telecommunications investments on new technologies, especially Internet technologies; and dealing with funding issues. | [FULL TEXT]

Colombo, Michaela W. (2006).  Building School Partnerships with Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Families  Phi Delta Kappan, 88, 4. 

After many efforts to lift the achievement of its high numbers of culturally and linguistically diverse students, a district in Massachusetts realized that the missing link was parent involvement. In this article, the author describes a program the district created to improve relationships between teachers and families and the enormous difference it has made in each side's understanding of the other. She discusses the Parent Partnership for Achieving Literacy (PAL) program. The program employed a dual approach to increase the overlap of school, home, and community influences by building bridges between mainstream teachers and culturally and linguistically diverse families. Among other things, the author emphasizes accessing and making use of local knowledge, as well as how the program connected with families.

_____. (2004).  Consolidated State Performance Report: Part II for State Formula Grant Programs under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act as Amended by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, for reporting on School Year 2002-2003.  [Indiana Department of Education] 

Achievement data from the 2002-2003 school year for public schools with poverty rates of 40% or greater in the state of Indiana are presented as required for State formula grant programs authorized by the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), as amended by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB). Tables present the number of schools reporting an increase in the number of students performing at the proficient or advanced levels of student achievement in mathematics as measured by State assessments administered in the reading/language arts and in 2002-2003 school year, compared to assessments administered in the 2001-2002 school year. Included are statistics on the number of students enrolled in targeted assistance programs, Even Start Family Literacy Programs, programs for migratory children, programs for children and youth who are neglected, delinquent and at-risk, and statistics on participation in Rural Education Achievement programs (REAP). The report concludes with a table showing the funding amounts transferred under the LEA Transferability authority of section 6123(b) during the 2002-2003 school year. | [FULL TEXT]

_____. (2004).  Consolidated Federal Funds Report for Fiscal Year 2003: State and County Areas.  [US Department of Commerce] 

The Consolidated Federal Funds Report (CFFR) is a presentation of data on federal government expenditures or obligations in state, county, and subcounty areas of the United States, including the District of Columbia and U.S. Outlying Areas. CFFR contains statistics on the geographic distribution of federal program expenditures, using data submitted by federal departments and agencies. These data have been consolidated and tabulated in a standard format by the U.S. Census Bureau under the auspices of the U.S. Office of Management and Budget, for presentation in publications and electronic form. The publications are: (1) Consolidated Federal Funds Report for Fiscal Year 2003 (State and County Areas); and (2) Federal Aid to States for Fiscal Year 2003. Data also are available on CD-ROM and on the Internet. Information on publications and CD-ROMs appears in the section, "Availability of Data" at the end of this Introduction. Appended are: (1) County-Type Areas Without County Government; (2) Geographic Areas With More Than Four Congressional Districts; (3) County Locations of State Capital Cities; (4) County Locations of State Capital Cities; (5) Consolidated Federal Funds Report Data Sources; (6) State Coordinating Agencies, State Data Center Program, U.S. Census Bureau; and (7) Use of County Area Allocations for Selected Federal Pass-Through Assistance Programs by State.

_____. (2005).  Confronting the Graduation Rate Crisis in the South  [Civil Rights Project at Harvard University (The)] 

Every year, across the country, a dangerously high percentage of students disproportionately poor and minority-disappear from the educational pipeline before graduating from high school. According to a study released by The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University (CRP) and the Urban Institute in 2004, only about 68% of all students nationally who enter 9th grade will graduate "on time" with regular diplomas in 12th grade. While the graduation rate for White students is 75%, only approximately half of Black, Latino, and Native American students earn regular diplomas alongside their classmates. Graduation rates are even lower for minority males. Yet, because of misleading and inaccurate reporting of dropout and graduation rates, and an exclusive preoccupation with testing data, the public remains largely unaware of this educational and civil rights crisis. This report gives special attention to five southern states--Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and North Carolina. These states report graduation rates in 2002 ranging from a high of 85% in North Carolina to a low of 61.8% in Georgia. When a more accurate measurement, the Cumulative Promotion Index (CPI) was used, the graduation rates for these five states dipped far lower than these official estimates. In keeping with the national trend, graduation rates for Black and Latino students in these five states are substantially lower still. In Georgia, which has a substantial and growing Latino population, the rates for Blacks, Latinos and Native Americans were all below 50%.  | [FULL TEXT]

Connelly, Steve; Richardson, Tim; Miles, Tim (2006).  Situated Legitimacy: Deliberative Arenas and the New Rural Governance  Journal of Rural Studies, 22, 3. 

Rural governance in the UK and elsewhere has undergone far-reaching changes, as partnerships and other collaborative approaches have emerged to address the challenges of rural sustainable development. The legitimacy of this "new rural governance" is purportedly grounded in deliberation between stakeholders, but this is problematic--it is not clear how "legitimacy" is to be understood now that the criteria of legitimacy appropriate to representative democratic government are not obviously applicable. Here we propose an analysis of legitimacy as "situated"--that is, given meanings by actors in specific contexts--and continuously constructed through discursive processes, where it also plays a reciprocal, highly political role in shaping those processes. We use this framework to analyse decision making in three distinctive deliberative arenas for sustainable transport policy making in the Peak District National Park in England. Legitimacy claims were found to be significant elements in each arena, but no single, overriding legitimacy discourse was successfully established. Instead, each arena's legitimacy was a hybrid, justified through a complex mix of competing rationales. While no single conclusion can be drawn about the legitimacy of "the new rural governance", the strongest legitimising principles remained those grounded in representative democracy. In contrast, the "new" approaches rely on deliberative norms accepted only by (some of) the relatively limited circle of stakeholders directly involved. More generally, if such norms are to become accepted principles for legitimate rural governance, then more work is needed to discursively establish their acceptability both in networks of governance and with the wider population.

Conte, Christopher (2001).  Networking the Land: Rural America in the Information Age. 

This report describes 10 projects funded by the federal Technology Opportunities Program, in which people in isolated regions are finding ways to connect to new information networks and are reaping social, economic, and educational benefits. In the sprawling Navajo Nation, where many families lack even basic telephone service, local tribal governments are using satellite connections to connect with the outside world. In rural Mayville, North Dakota, a state university is working with local leaders to establish a homegrown technology industry and halt a long economic decline. A project of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation is showing how timely collection and distribution of information can improve the efficiency of irrigation systems and help farmers in Utah's Sevier River basin stretch limited water resources. In coastal Maine, better information systems are improving the delivery of social services to needy families. Two telemedicine projects, which deliver health care services and medical education in rural Maine and Vermont, show that telemedicine comprises various tools rather than a single technology and that human relationships make it work. Broadband videoconferencing is being used by Marshall University (West Virginia) to make distance education more personal, and is improving extension services offered by North Dakota State University. The Virtual Chautauqua use video and audio streaming technology to bring the performing arts into rural Colorado classrooms, while Dance Partners uses videoconferencing to bring dance education to remote Minnesota communities. Contact information is included. | [FULL TEXT]

Convery, Ian; Bailey, Cathy; Mort, Maggie; Baxter, Josephine (2005).  Death in the Wrong Place? Emotional Geographies of the UK 2001 Foot and Mouth Disease Epidemic  Journal of Rural Studies, 21, 1. 

In this paper, we draw on the concept of "lifescape" (Some and McSweeney, ILEIA Newsletter, ETC Leusden, The Netherlands, 1996; Howorth, Rebuilding the Local Landscape, Ashgate, Aldershot, 1999) to capture the spatial, emotional and ethical dimensions of the relationship between landscape, livestock and farming community and to elucidate the heterogeneity of agricultural emotional landscapes. In so doing, we illustrate complex and contradictory spatial, emotional and ethical relations between humans and non-humans. Farm animals may exist simultaneously as "friends" and sources of food, leading to a blurring of socially constructed categories such as "livestock" and "pet" (Holloway, J. Rural Stud. 17 (2001) 293). Livestock as "economic machines" for converting roughage to meat, milk and by-products (Briggs and Briggs, Modern Breeds of Livestock, fourth ed., Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., New York, 1980) represents one strand of these relations; the sight of farmers crying and farm animals being blessed during the 2001 Cambrian foot and mouth outbreak, yet another. As (Franklin, Anthropology Today 17 (3) (2001) 3) indicates, "the farmer weeping beside the blazing pyre of dead sheep is a complex portrait of a breach in the relationships between animals and humans". By drawing on experiences of the 2001 foot and mouth epidemic, for farmers and the wider rural community in North Cumbria, we try to articulate the ambiguities of this breach.

Coogan, David (2005).  Counterpublics in Public Housing: Reframing the Politics of Service-Learning  College English, 67, 5. 

The rhetorical nature of the challenge to convert people to the cause of community development is illustrated in the discussion of three of the leadership portraits that students created for Urban Matters. The way these leaders persuade the residents to transform the negativity of a housing project into the positivity is analyzed.

Cook, Samuel R. (2003).  Developing an American Indian Studies Program: A View from Ground Zero  American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 27, 4. 

In this article, the author describes the development of the Virginia Tech American Indian Studies (AIS) program. This program, though a fledgling one, has embodied the guiding principles of an authentic AIS program throughout its brief existence. This program was created in 1999 at the request of some of the state's indigenous peoples and has been guided by a collaborative mandate ever since. Although Virginia Tech's program might not be "time-tested," the author believes that the initiatives they have put in place in a short period provide important models for holistic approaches to American Indian studies.

Cooksy, Leslie J.; Caracelli, Valerie J. (2005).  Quality, Context, and Use: Issues in Achieving the Goals of Metaevaluation  American Journal of Evaluation, 26, 1. 

Metaevaluations are systematic reviews of evaluations to determine the quality of their processes and findings. The knowledge about evaluation quality that results from metaevaluation of multiple evaluations can be used to inform researchers' decisions about which studies to include in evaluation syntheses. Metaevaluations of multiple studies are also used to identify strengths and weaknesses in evaluation practice in order to develop evaluation capacity. This article discusses the multiple ways in which quality can be defined, the political and cultural contexts of metaevaluation, and issues surrounding use and misuse. A metaevaluation of evaluations of international agricultural research centers illustrates these topics.

Cooney, Thomas J. (2003).  Mathematics Teacher Education in Rural Communities: Developing a Foundation for Action. Working Paper. 

This paper reviews the research on mathematics teacher education and mathematics education reform to provide a possible foundation for educating mathematics teachers in rural Appalachia. The paper takes the position that teacher change has certain characteristics and impediments that are not limited to any particular circumstance. Research on elementary mathematics teachers in various countries reveals teacher misconceptions and lack of knowledge about mathematics, their difficulty in appreciating its connectedness, and their beliefs about mathematics as a frightening subject. Research on secondary mathematics teachers suggests that secondary teachers' beliefs about mathematics and the intensity of their beliefs impede reform efforts. Commonalities found in research into preservice and inservice teacher education focus on difficulties teachers have in knowing mathematics, knowing about mathematics, and knowing about the teaching of mathematics. From these commonalities, three principles are identified for teaching mathematics to preservice teachers: that preservice teachers should experience mathematics as a pluralistic subject, should explicitly study and reflect on school mathematics, and should experience mathematics in ways that support the development of process-oriented teaching styles. Barriers to school improvement in rural areas are discussed, followed by implications of the rural circumstance for improved teaching/learning of mathematics and improved training of rural mathematics teachers. | [FULL TEXT]

Cooper, Richard A. (2005).  Physician Migration: A Challenge for America, a Challenge for the World  Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 25, 1. 

For five decades, medical education policy in the United States has been built around the expectation that, if too few physicians were produced, additional physicians would be available from other countries. That policy is examined in the context of the desire for an ever-increasing number of physicians who will provide an ever-expanding array of services in the future. This reality is juxtaposed against the realities that the medical education infrastructure in the United States has yet to respond to the projected needs of the future. Also, other countries have growing needs for English-speaking physicians, particularly the developing countries from which most such physicians migrate. I explore the history of physician migration to the United States, catalogue the countries of origin, examine the attitudes of current students and physicians about migration, and consider the consequences that are likely for donor countries if even higher levels of migration are stimulated. I conclude that the deepening shortages of physicians now being experienced in this country cannot be rectified without substantial increases in the flow of physicians from developing to developed countries. The challenges that this will create call for mutual understanding and a high degree of discipline and creativity among all countries if global health care needs are to be respected.

Cooper, Sharon P.; Weller, Nancy F.; Fox, Erin E.; Cooper, Sara R. (2005).  Comparative Description of Migrant Farmworkers versus Other Students Attending Rural South Texas Schools: Substance Use, Work, and Injuries  Journal of Rural Health, 21, 4. 

Context: Little is known about substance use, work characteristics, and injuries of youth from migrant farmworker families. Some evidence suggests that migrant youth may be at greater risk for substance use and work-related injuries than nonmigrant youth. Purpose: The aim of this study is to compare substance use, employment, and injury data from migrant and nonmigrant youth residing in rural South Texas. Methods: Anonymous cross-sectional survey data were collected from 7,302 middle and 3,565 high school students during a regular class. Classification as a migrant student occurred if the student responded positively to: "Does your family move around the state or nation to pick fruits or vegetables for work?" Results: About 5% of South Texas middle and high school students reported belonging to a migrant family. Compared to nonmigrant students, migrant youth were more likely to report frequent substance use. Youth belonging to migrant families were less likely to work for pay on weekends but more likely to work for pay on weekday mornings before school. These youth were also more likely to have ever been injured while working than nonmigrant students. Conclusions: These results demonstrate a need for additional interventions in this most vulnerable rural population. Specifically, targeted educational programs to enhance the occupational safety and health of migrant youth, further research into effective substance abuse treatment and prevention programs in rural areas, and enhancement of child labor laws are recommended.

Copus, Andrew; Petrie, Scott; Shucksmith, Janet; Shucksmith, Mark; Still, Margaret; Watt, Joyce (2001).  Pre-School Educational Provision in Rural Areas. Interchange 69. 

The Scottish Executive Education Department has pledged to achieve universal provision of preschool education for 3- and 4-year-olds, whose parents want it, by 2002. The particular factors affecting delivery of preschool education in rural areas were examined through telephone interviews with local education authorities and voluntary preschool providers in rural areas and through five detailed case studies. A preliminary exercise--a detailed mapping of Scotland's rural population--found that 29 percent of Scotland's population was rural, but 88 percent of rural people lived in areas adjacent to urban centers. The proportion of preschool children in rural areas was similar to overall figures, except in remote areas, which had only half the expected number of preschool children. A gap was found between numbers of eligible preschool children and provision of preschool places in rural areas. Choices similar to those in urban areas were found only in rural adjacent areas. Shortages of qualified teachers or nursery nurses, higher costs for smaller groups, and transportation problems were among the difficulties encountered. Provision of preschool education by local authorities varied widely in terms of practices, principles, and priorities. There were very different views about acceptable travel distances and staffing, and some authorities developed innovative solutions concerning scheduling, facilities, and transportation. The findings raise policy issues related to social inclusion goals, parental choice and involvement, and the definition of "quality." Recommendations are presented to the Scottish Executive and local authorities. | [FULL TEXT]

Corbett, Michael (2004).  "It Was Fine, if You Wanted to Leave": Educational Ambivalence in a Nova Scotian Coastal Community, 1963-1998  Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 35, 4. 

This article reports on a study of schooling in southwest Nova Scotia. Using Bourdieu's concepts of cultural capital and habitus, I analyze rural men's relationships involving identity, work, place, and schooling to explain continuing high male dropout rates and local traditions of ambivalence and resistance to schooling. I conclude that the tension between formal schooling and place is endemic in many rural communities and that qualitative migration analysis can reveal the complexity of relationships between learning and leaving.

Corbett, Michael (2005).  Rural Education and Out-Migration: The Case of a Coastal Community  Canadian Journal of Education, 28, 1-2. 

In this article, I report on findings from a case study examining the relationship between formal education and out-migration in a Canadian coastal community from the early 1960s to the late 1990s. Although high rates of village-level out-migration were chronic, most migration trajectories were short-range. Contrary to large-scale quantitative analyses of rural depopulation, I found a geographically stable population and persistently low high-school graduation rates among those who stayed in the proximal area. In the analysis of educational attainment and migration, schools served their traditional role of sorting and selecting youth for out-migration.

Corbett, Michael (2007).  Travels in Space and Place: Identity and Rural Schooling  Canadian Journal of Education, 30, 3. 

This analysis draws on interview data from a three-year study of educational decision making of youth living in a coastal community in Atlantic Canada. Students whose educational and mobility aspirations extend outside the known spaces of the community develop the ability to negotiate multiple social spaces in and out of school. The school- successful "floater" identity position is assumed by youth comfortable in a variety of social groups and situations ranging from peer cliques to interactions with teachers and other institutional authority figures. This contrasts with more localized identity positions, marked by strong and exclusive identification with local networks.

Corbett, Michael (2007).  All Kinds of Potential: Women and Out-Migration in an Atlantic Canadian Coastal Community  Journal of Rural Studies, 23, 4. 

Rural researchers have found that women leave rural communities at a higher rate than men. Rural education researchers have also found that young women are significantly more successful in formal education than their male counterparts. Few studies though attempt to explain why this is so. This work presents data and analysis from two studies of education and out-migration from a rural-coastal community in Nova Scotia Canada. The questions I investigate in this session are: (1) why are women more likely to leave rural communities? (2) how have contemporary change forces like globalization and network society influenced the gender balance regarding rural out-migration? and (3) how has young rural women's relative success in formal education related to their higher rates of out-migration? Given the recent concern about boy's education, I raise some critical questions about the parallel notion that girls are doing just fine.

Corbett, Mike (2006).  Educating the Country Out of the Child and Educating the Child Out of the Country: An Excursion in Spectrology  Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 52, 4. 

A focus on rurality has been largely absent from much contemporary educational policy discussion. At best, rural education is a peripheral concern just as rural areas are increasingly considered marginal to the development of a globalized, networked, fast capitalism. In Canada rural, coastal, northern, and single-industry communities that were built around primary resource extraction are constructed as social and educational problem spaces partly because their residents are often attached to these places long after they have served their economic purpose as natural resource deposits for the interests of capital. In fact rurality and rusticity are typically seen as one face of the kind of localized social condition that formal education is designed to normalize and transform by fostering outmigration and a general orientation to urban life and to mobility. In this analysis I use Derrida's idea of spectrology to examine some images of rurality as persistent, place-attached ghosts haunting the educational project of modernity.

Cornelius, Luke M.; Robinson, Charlotte Bunn (2006).  Rural School Districts and the Fight for Funding Adequacy: The Legal Challenge of "CASFG v. State of Georgia"  Journal of Education Finance, 32, 1. 

On June 23, 2005, oral arguments were heard in the Fulton County Superior Court in the first round of Georgia's current school finance litigation, "CASFG v. State of Georgia." The hearing was on the state's motion to dismiss the action by a coalition of rural school districts, parents, and students. Four months later Senior Judge Elizabeth Long issued her preliminary ruling, allowing the Consortium for Adequate School Funding (CASFG) to proceed with its claims on the constitutional adequacy of Georgia's Quality Basic Education (QBE) finance plan while dismissing the consortium's complaint regarding equity. Both parties await further procedural appeals before the Georgia Supreme Court, and this article reviews the claims regarding the current state of funding in Georgia's schools and recent related developments.

Coronado, Gloria D.; Thompson, Beti; Tejeda, Silvia; Godina, Ruby; Chen, Lu (2007).  Sociodemographic Factors and Self-Management Practices Related to Type 2 Diabetes among Hispanics and Non-Hispanic Whites in a Rural Setting  Journal of Rural Health, 23, 1. 

Context: Hispanics in the United States have a higher prevalence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (type 2 diabetes) and experience more complications for the disease than non-Hispanic whites. Differences in medical management or self-management practices may, in part, explain the relative high risk for diabetes complications among Hispanics. Purpose: Using data from a community-randomized intervention study on cancer prevention, we examined the medical management and self-management practices of Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites who have diabetes. Methods: Locally hired bilingual personnel conducted in-person interviews of a random selection of 1,863 adults in 20 communities in the Yakima Valley of eastern Washington State. Findings: A total of 70 Hispanics (11% age-adjusted prevalence) and 87 non-Hispanic whites (7.3% age-adjusted prevalence) reported having type 2 diabetes. Hispanics with a high level of acculturation were slightly more likely to have diabetes, compared to those with a low level of acculturation, though the association was nonsignificant. Hispanics were significantly less likely than non-Hispanic whites to treat their diabetes with diet and exercise (36% vs 61.3%; P less than or equal to 0.001). Annual eye examinations were less commonly reported among Hispanics (48.9%) than among non-Hispanic whites (72.7%). Conclusions: Our data indicate that Hispanics engage less frequently in self-management practices to control diabetes than non-Hispanic whites.

Cortez, Albert (2004).  Not-So-Special Session Ends With a Whimper  [Intercultural Development Research Association] 

Texas Governor Rick Perry convened the legislature in a fourth special session in April 2004 for state leaders to address school finance and tax related issues left unresolved in its 2003 regular biennial gathering. As the session opened, there was much uproar about how the system was to be changed dramatically. Some talked about creating a new school finance plan that would "last for decades," others promised Texas citizens a great reduction in local property taxes, and a few actually proposed that they would achieve both substantive education reform and tax "relief." | [FULL TEXT]

Cottle, Thomas J. (2004).  Professors  Journal of Education, 185, 2. 

Stewart Nicholson is perhaps the most avoided person in a little town in Maine. Nicholson has opinions on anything and everything, and his position typically is presented as the final word. A handsome man, now carrying too much weight, Nicholson was born to be a college professor due to his incessant talking. But due to dyslexia, he never became a professor and instead became a carpenter. In this article, the author provides readers with a personal glimpse of Stewart Nicholson, an individual who never had a college diploma but imbued the value of education to his own children. The author relates that he sometimes feels that Nicholson has ill feelings towards him due to their different social and economic status. However, the author claims that despite this gap, he believes that he and Nicholson are equal. They are equal in the sense that both of them have three children and he and Nicholson were able to send them all to college. All the rest, such as their learning difficulties, their different social and economic positions no longer matter. In fact, the author considers them both to be untenured professors that exhibit a tendency to talk too much and listen too little with their students.

Courtney, Paul; Hill, Gary; Roberts, Deborah (2006).  The Role of Natural Heritage in Rural Development: An Analysis of Economic Linkages in Scotland  Journal of Rural Studies, 22, 4. 

There is growing recognition of the important role played by natural heritage in rural economic development, but limited empirical work as yet to inform this debate. This paper examines the nature and strength of local economic linkages associated with the natural heritage in four case study areas in Scotland, differentiated in terms of their peripherality and dependence on the natural heritage. A framework for identifying "natural heritage activities" in different localities is developed and applied in each study area. The framework distinguishes between three types of natural heritage activities, "core" activities, such as environmental management; "primary production and extraction" activities; and "reliant" activities where the natural heritage is highly important to a business's commercial viability. Analysis of first-round economic linkages and multiplier effects of local economic activity in the four case study areas indicates that natural heritage "reliant" activities have the greatest potential for generating local economic benefits through their propensity to source locally. They are also found to contribute more significantly to the economic base of the study areas through sales of goods and services to visitors. The policy implications of the findings are discussed.

Cowdery, Joy (2005).  Telling Stories. The Five-Subject Notebook. Telling Stories  Kappa Delta Pi Record, 41, 4. 

At some schools, teachers deal with the reality that the majority of their students live in poverty; at others, where only pockets of poverty exist, teachers may become complacent in their "middle-classness." At many rural and suburban schools, the minority of low-income students can be rendered invisible to teachers. Unfortunately, teachers may assume that all students have access to resources that may be unavailable to some. This article relates a personal experience of the author that illustrated this point. | [FULL TEXT]

Cowley, Kimberly S. (2000).  Student and Parent Awareness of and Aspirations for Postsecondary Education: Fairmont State College GEAR UP Project, Year 1. 

Project GEAR UP (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs) encourages disadvantaged youth to stay in school and prepare for college. To gather baseline information on incoming seventh-grade students' and parents' awareness of, interest in, and aspirations for students' postsecondary education, surveys were administered to 2,454 students and their parents in 29 middle schools in 9 rural West Virginia counties. This report summarizes findings from the surveys, administered in February 2000. Findings are presented in a regional overview, followed by significant county differences. The findings indicate that: (1) parents played an important role in their child's education; (2) students were willing to admit they needed academic help and were open to participating in enrichment opportunities; (3) most students recognized the benefits of postsecondary education and believed their parents wanted them to attend college, but were unsure of their own aspirations; (4) students viewed poor grades and limited finances as the biggest obstacles to continuing their education; (5) students viewed parents as the most important source of educational information, but few parents were familiar with postsecondary entrance requirements; and (6) parents and students were both disinclined to believe that students would receive scholarships. Recommendations are made for increasing student and parent awareness of, and interest in, postsecondary education. Appendices present the survey form with summary responses, and explanatory comments on significant chi-square items from the surveys. | [FULL TEXT]

Cowley, Kimberly S.; Finch, Nicole L.; Meehan, Merrill L. (2003).  Evaluation of Years 1 and 2 of the McKelvey Foundation Program To Distribute Scholarships to Entrepreneurial Rural Students in the States of Pennsylvania, New York, and West Virginia. 

The purpose of this report is to provide a formative evaluation of the McKelvey Foundation Program to Distribute Scholarships to Entrepreneurial Rural Students in the States of Pennsylvania, New York, and West Virginia. This evaluation provides databased recommendations for making program adjustments to improve delivery of services and/or other suggestions for improving program efficiency and effectiveness. | [FULL TEXT]

Cowley, Kimberly S.; Meehan, Merrill L.; Wilson, Robert A.; Wilson, Nancy M. (2003).  Academic Aspirations and Expectations: Perceptions of Rural Seventh Graders and Their Parents. 

A study examined rural students' academic aspirations and expectations, their perceptions of their parents' aspirations and expectations, and their parents' actual aspirations and expectations. Surveys were completed by 3,733 seventh grade-students in 54 schools in 17 West Virginia counties. Parent response rates were lower, with approximately two thirds of mothers and slightly less than half of fathers responding. Forty four of the schools were rural. Results indicated that rural parents expected and were expected by their children to play a large role in providing information about continued education. Parents placed a much higher value on the role of the guidance counselor than did students. Female students aspired to a bachelor's degree, and males aspired to an associate's degree. Students felt that their parents' goals exceeded their own and that both parents held these higher aspirations. Parents did report higher aspirations for their children than their children held, but the gap was greater than the students perceived. Both parents and students reported similar perceptions of students' academic effort, with at least half reporting effort equivalent to peers and a fourth professing greater effort. Parents reported little contact with schools about courses and grades needed to get into college. Parents and students had reasonably accurate expectations concerning college costs, but low-income parents were doubtful they could afford it. There was a disconnect between academic expectations and educational aspirations that could lead to disappointment and the failure to achieve those aspirations. | [FULL TEXT]

Cowley, Kimberly S.; Meehan, Merrill L.; Wilson, Robert A.; Wilson, Nancy M. (2004).  Replicating Factor Analyses Across Years: Aspiration Results for Rural Middle School Students  [AEL] 

A cross validation study was conducted using data from white, rural seventh graders to investigate the stability of the construct validity of a model of eight conditions that are purported to support adolescent academic aspirations. A factor analytic study examined GEAR-UP survey data from 4,365 students across two consecutive years. In contrast to the model proposed by the University of Maine, the results of this study supported a four-factor model that persisted across years and gender. These factors are Self- Efficacy, Teacher-Centric, Leadership, and Like School. While the factors were consistent, the weightings did vary by gender and by year with girls rating the Teacher- Centric factor as most important and boys rating Self-Efficacy first across time periods. | [FULL TEXT]

Cowley, Kimberly S.; Voelkel, Susan; Finch, Nicole L.; Meehan, Merrill L. (2005).  Perceptions Of School Culture (POSC) User Manual and Technical Report  [Appalachia Educational Laboratory at Edvantia] 

The Perceptions Of School Culture (POSC) instrument was designed to measure the perceptions of a school staff regarding various dimensions of school culture contained in a hypothesized model of school cultural change. Specifically, this model posits that the development of a high-performance learning culture is influenced by school vision and mission; strategic structures" (within-school relationships, school policies and procedures, and the school's physical environment); the professional staffs core beliefs about teacher efficacy and student effort, student ability and achievement, and the nature of power and control within the school; and the level within the school community of distributed accountability-shared responsibility for the achievement of all students. The 2005 norming study of the POSC was preceded, in 2004, by a pilot test (401 professional staff in 12 schools) and a field test (1,154 professional staff in 42 schools), both of which are briefly described in this report. [This document was produced by the Appalachia Educational Laboratory at Edvantia, formerly the Appalachian Educational Laboratory (AEL, Inc.).] | [FULL TEXT]

Cox, John E.; Lynch, Debra M. (2006).  Library Media Centers: Accessibility Issues in Rural Missouri  Intervention in School and Clinic, 42, 2. 

Based on a study by Cox (2004), this article deals with the needs of students with visual, hearing, and orthopedic impairments in terms of full access to school library media centers. Fictitious vignettes of student concerns as well as possible answers and thought-provoking questions expand Cox's rural Missouri-based study to a much wider audience of school and library media personnel.

Cox, Robin S.; Espinoza, Adriana (2005).  Career-Community Development: A Framework for Career Counseling and Capacity Building in Rural Communities  Journal of Employment Counseling, 42, 4. 

The authors propose a framework for career counseling in rural communities that addresses the psychosocial and economic challenges of natural disasters and other catastrophic transitions. The career-community development framework expands the notion of "client" to include a community-as-client approach within a capacity building orientation to supporting workers in the wake of large-scale disruptions. Drawing on a case study of 2 communities recovering from a devastating forest fire, the authors outline an intervention approach that integrates elements from psychological-trauma theory, career-community capacity building models, and libratory educational practices. Implications of this framework for counselor training and practice are discussed.

Cravens, David D.; Mehr, David R.; Campbell, James D.; Armer, Jane; Kruse, Robin L.; Rubenstein, Laurence Z. (2005).  Home-Based Comprehensive Assessment of Rural Elderly Persons: The CARE Project  Journal of Rural Health, 21, 4. 

Context: Home-based comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA) has been effective in urban areas but has had little study in rural areas. CGA involves medical history taking, a physical exam, and evaluation of functional status, mental status, cognitive status, gait and balance, medications, vision, extent of social supports, and home safety. We sought to develop and pilot a model of rural home-based CGA to determine whether successful urban models can be adapted to rural areas. Methods: This study was a developmental demonstration project with qualitative and quantitative evaluation components of a home-based CGA model using a home health agency and a geriatrician participating from a remote location by teleconference. Findings and recommendations were relayed to patients, caregivers, and primary physicians. The population studied was elderly volunteers (N = 51) aged 75 years and older who did not have a terminal diagnosis or immediate plans to enter a long-term care facility. Survey instruments and focus groups were used with subjects, family members or caregivers, and physicians to generate refinements and outcome measures for the model. Findings: Among the 51 patients undergoing CGA, Instrumental Activities of Daily Living dependency and balance and gait problems were highly prevalent. Means of 1.1 major problems and 4.9 nonmajor problems were identified per patient. Recommendations were implemented for 32% of major problems and for 35% of nonmajor problems. Primary physicians found recommendations for vaccination and home safety change helpful but were skeptical of physical examination findings by the nurse. Practitioners noted that this study resulted in several positive outcomes: (1) some subjects initiated regular clinic visits; (2) several visually impaired elders began services for the blind; (3) identification of gait and balance problems resulted in physical therapy treatment; and (4) identification of caregiver stress was addressed by social-work intervention. Potential further refinements of the model for rural home-based CGA were identified. Conclusions: Home-based CGA identifies important problems of rural older adults. However, modifications are still needed to create a truly effective process.

Creswell, John; Underwood, Catherine (2004).  Location, Location, Location: Implications of Geographic Situation on Australian Student Performance in PISA 2000. ACER Research Monograph Number 58  [ACER Press (Australian Council for Educational Research)] 

The primary focus of this report is to examine the effect that geographical location may have on the performance of students from schools from all parts of Australia who participated in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)/Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA 2000). Approximately 5,477 students from 231 schools across Australia encompassing schools in Major Cities, Inner Regional areas, Outer Regional areas, Remote areas and Very Remote areas participated. It was found in PISA that students in remote areas are not achieving at the same level as their city counterparts. In PISA, levels of proficiency were described, Level 1 being the most basic and Level 5 the most complex. It was found that 27 percent of students from remote areas were achieving at the two lowest levels, compared to 12 percent of students from major cities. At the other end of the scale, 18 percent of remote students achieved at the two highest levels, compared to 46 percent of the city students. The most important factor positively associated with success in reading literacy has been found to be students' engagement with reading.  [This publication is the result of research funded by Australian State, Territory, and Commonwealth governments.]

_____. (2004).  Critical Issues in Rural Education, Position Paper I: "No Child Left Behind"  [National Rural Education Association] 

Idealistic federal legislation that invokes excellence and fairness, such as the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, may actually leave many rural communities behind as rural schools seeking to meet the federal mandates collide with state budget deficits of historical proportion. Drawing on the literature, public opinion polls, and the results of a survey of the executive directors of 24 state affiliates of the National Rural Education Association (NREA), this position paper discusses the most pressing concerns about NCLB's potential effects on rural education to show that NCLB's "cookie cutter" approach to public education is considered unacceptable to many educators and to much of the public. NREA's recommendations for action are: (1) Demonstrate that NREA and state-affiliate organizations advocate a high-quality, standards-based education for all students in rural schools with adequate funding provided equitably and used effectively to support such an education; (2) Identify and promote the qualities of a rural education that help students excel and build strong rural communities; (3) Support a research agenda that reveals how and why rural schools are being successful in the current climate of high stakes accountability; (4) Identify the constraints to the academic and social success of rural students, develop an agenda to overcome them, and move aggressively to accomplish implementation of the agenda at the national policy level, in both the political and educational environments; (5) Establish supportive partnerships with community organizations and groups through signed memorandums of understandings; and (6) Build public awareness of these actions and work to develop a membership base that is active and supportive of their attainment.  | [FULL TEXT]

Cross, Tracy L.; Burney, Virginia H. (2005).  High Ability, Rural, and Poor: Lessons from Project Aspire and Implications for School Counselors  Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 16, 4. 

This article describes a grant-funded effort to improve the lives of academically able middle and high school students living in rural poverty. The program, Project Aspire, attempts to increase the number of these children in the most rigorous math and science coursework available in their schools. To that end, Project Aspire assists 14 school corporations by helping faculty in those settings increase the level of rigor of their courses and by offering Advanced Placement (AP) courses through multiple platforms of distance education technologies. A primary component of the project is the attempt to assist the school counselors' work with their students, in hopes that the students' lives will be improved. To prepare the counselors, ongoing training has been provided. This paper reports an analysis of the ideas and experiences shared during the lengthy training sessions with 21 school counselors. From the analysis and a literature review, the authors offer in three tables concise information for effectively working with high-ability middle and high school students living in rural poverty.  | [FULL TEXT]

Crow, Nedra A.; Spencer, Betty (2003).  Influencing Student Learning: A School-Wide Action Research Project. 

This paper provides a case study of a school-wide action research project to increase student learning in a rural intermediate school. First, it provides background information on the action research model and notes such challenges as the difficulty in providing teachers with a "coaching" style of professional development and the increasing need to use distance education delivery models to support educators in rural and remote schools. The second section describes development of the U-LEARN (Utah Local Education Action Research Network) program, which originated as a six-credit semester course. The following section reviews results of collaborative efforts and factors in the five regions of the Utah Action Research Initiative, stressing onsite teaching instruction enhanced by online course support. Next, the development of the action research program at a specific school is detailed, including three training sessions scheduled for October, December, and April, and on-going support as teachers conduct their own action research projects. Preliminary results indicated the value of the collaborative perspective and onsite teaching; the feasibility of working with one school faculty, delivering one action strategy or intervention, and gathering data based on a common design; and the effectiveness of the Action Research Workbook developed by the project. | [FULL TEXT]

Crowe, Jessica A. (2006).  Community Economic Development Strategies in Rural Washington: Toward a Synthesis of Natural and Social Capital  Rural Sociology, 71, 4. 

Routes to economic development attract considerable attention in community and rural sociology. Social scientists draw increasingly on studies of social capital and environmental surroundings as they examine the factors that facilitate and inhibit economic development. However, few empirical analyses exist that analyze the impact of the combination of social infrastructure and natural capital on different forms of economic development such as on industrial recruitment and self-development. Using data collected from six communities in Washington State, the interaction of a community's social infrastructure and natural capital on industrial recruitment and self-development efforts is examined. Results suggest that while natural capital positively impacts a community's successful recruitment of outside industries, it is not significant for a community's level of self-development. However, a community's social infrastructure, measured by the existence of active civic organizations, local businesses that support local community projects, community-wide fund-raising capacity, and extra-local linkages to nearby communities, state, and national agencies, positively affects both industrial recruitment and self-development. These findings illustrate the need for communities and local activists to carefully weigh their advantages and potential shortcomings when deciding on an economic development strategy.

Cruce, Michael K.; Stinnett, Terry A.; Choate, Kurt T. (2003).  Student Sexual Orientation, Promiscuity and Urban Acculturation as Factors That Influence Teacher Judgments about HIV[Positive] Students  Psychology in the Schools, 40, 2. 

Attributions toward HIV[positive] adolescents made by teacher education students who graduated from rural or urban high schools were examined. Participants read vignettes in which level of promiscuity and sexual orientation were varied, then completed a rating scale that reflected various attitudes toward HIV[positive] students. The vignette student labeled promiscuous was blamed and judged more personally responsible for contracting the disease than the non-promiscuous student. Participants who reported graduating from urban high schools indicated more positive affect and positive attitude toward integration, but also higher levels of fearfulness, than did those from rural high schools. Sexual orientation and the participant's high school location interacted on the need for reporting/precautions variable. Those from urban high schools indicated a higher need for reporting and safety precautions than did those from rural high schools when the HIV[positive] student was labeled heterosexual. School Psychologists should be aware of the varied factors that are involved in teacher judgments concerning HIV[positive] students. A Sample Vignette is appended.

Crump, William J.; Barnett, Darel; Fricker, Steve (2004).  A Sense of Place: Rural Training at a Regional Medical School Campus  Journal of Rural Health, 20, 1. 

Traditionally, rural students experience urban disruption during the many years of education and training in urban environments before choosing a practice site. Regional rural campuses that allow students to live and work in small towns during the last 2 years of medical school are one strategy to address this issue. Purpose: To report the results of the first 10 years of a rural campus in western Kentucky, including response to difficulties filling openings for third- and fourth-year medical students at the campus. Methods: A survey was sent to all 76 students who had shown interest in the rural campus, asking them to prioritize the important issues in their campus choice. Findings: Students not choosing the rural campus placed a higher priority on large-city amenities, better opportunities for their spouse, and proximity to family in eastern and central Kentucky. Students who chose the rural campus placed a higher priority on one-on-one clinical training and interest in small town life. Conclusions: For the rural clinical campus to reach its potential, more rural students from the western part of the state must be admitted to medical school and then choose this campus. Strategies to reinforce the sense of place among rural students focus on experiential programs in rural areas. Initial results suggest that medical educators should consider geography more carefully when designing approaches to address physician maldistribution.

Cruzeiro, Patricia A.; Morgan, Robert L. (2006).  The Rural Principal's Role with Consideration for Special Education  Education, 126, 3. 

The role of principal is a multifaceted one. Beyond the duties associated with the general education program, principals are essential in making inclusion work within their buildings (Quigney, 1996). Information about the ways in which rural and small-school principals administrate the special education programs in their buildings was the focus of this study. To evaluate their leadership in special education, 255 rural school principals in Nebraska, South Dakota, and Wyoming responded to a survey examining their role and responsibilities in special education leadership. The results indicated principals indeed do include learners with disabilities within their leadership function.

Cuc, Nguyen Thi Kim; Griffin, Patrick (2007).  Development of a Scale to Measure Economic Status of Students in Rural Vietnam  Asia Pacific Education Review, 8, 2. 

Family economic status is generally considered to be an important factor associated with students' educational outcomes. However, to evaluate the strength of this contention, it is important to first have appropriate measures of family economic status. Measuring the economic status of Vietnamese people has been particularly difficult as the respondents have not been able to report accurately on their income. This has been compounded in rural populations, because of the relative economic homogeneity of communities. This study constructed, calibrated and validated a set of items to form a measure of economic status of students' families in rural Vietnam.

Cuellar-Marchelli, Helga (2003).  Decentralization and Privatization of Education in El Salvador: Assessing the Experience.  International Journal of Educational Development, 23, 2. 

Describes decentralization and privatization policies in El Salvador's education reform plan and assesses their potential success and limitations. The EDUCO program, in which nonprofit parents' associations in poor rural communities administer community schools, has expanded rural access to education. However, EDUCO also has potential to exacerbate existing inequities in rural areas, and its productive efficiency and effect on school quality have not been fully examined.

Cueto, Santiago; Chinen, Marjorie (2008).  Educational Impact of a School Breakfast Programme in Rural Peru  International Journal of Educational Development, 28, 2. 

In this paper, we present data from an evaluation of the educational impact of a school breakfast program implemented in rural schools in Peru. The results showed positive effects on school attendance and dropout rates, and a differential effect of the breakfast program on multiple-grade and full-grade schools. Particularly in multiple-grade schools the program shows a significant and positive effect on short-term memory, arithmetic and reading comprehension. The evaluation also showed an unexpected negative consequence: students in the breakfast group reduced their time in the classroom with their teachers and increased the time in recess (when they consumed the breakfast).

Cullen, Theresa A.; Brush, Thomas A.; Frey, Timothy J.; Hinshaw, Rebecca S.; Warren, Scott J. (2006).  NCLB Technology and a Rural School: A Case Study  Rural Educator, 28, 1. 

The requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) have presented special challenges and opportunities for rural schools (Reeves, 2003). Researchers have suggested that one way rural schools may be able to overcome these challenges is through an increase in the level of technology integration in their school (Collins & Dewees, 2001). This case study reports on one school's attempt to use grant resources funded through NCLB to integrate specific instructional technologies to facilitate increased student achievement. Through interviews and observations, the roles, attitudes, and difficulties of teachers and administrators in implementing a technology initiative in a rural middle school were observed, examined and discussed. Emerging themes included issues related to teacher ownership of the technology, teacher feelings of power and participation, differing goals of teachers and administrators, technical difficulties, school wide support, and changes in school culture. | [FULL TEXT]

Cullen, Theresa; Frey, Tim; Hinshaw, Rebecca; Warren, Scott (2004).  Technology Grants and Rural Schools: The Power to Transform  [Association for Educational Communications and Technology] 

The requirements of No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) has presented challenges for schools and districts across the United States such as a new need to focus on test scores and student achievement. While all states, districts, and schools face challenges that require them to adjust the structure and delivery of instruction in their schools, the small population and geographic isolation of rural schools can make change even more challenging (Reeves, 2003). Some have suggested that one way some rural schools may be able to overcome these challenges is through an increase in the level of technology integration in their school (Collins & Dewees, 2001). Schools struggle not only to implement and integrate technology into their curriculum, but also struggle to find the funds that they can allocate to the purchase and maintenance of technologically-enhanced instructional strategies. Fortunately, the high cost of technology and the potential educational impact of technological resources have led to the awarding of federal and state grants to facilitate the implementation of educational technology in schools (Herr & Brooks, 2003). This study examines one school?s attempt to use grant money to purchase and integrate specific instructional technology into their school in order to increase student achievement. | [FULL TEXT]

Cullum, C. Munro; Weiner, Myron F.; Gehrmann, Helena R.; Hynan, Linda S. (2006).  Feasibility of Telecognitive Assessment in Dementia  Assessment, 13, 4. 

Videoconferencing (VC) technology has been used successfully to provide psychiatric services to patients in rural and otherwise underserved settings. VC-based diagnostic interviewing has shown good agreement with conventional face-to-face diagnosis of dementia in several investigations, but extension of this technology to neurocognitive assessment has received little attention. To this end, the authors administered a brief battery of common neuropsychological tests via VC technology (telecognitive) and traditional face-to-face methods to 14 older persons with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and 19 persons with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease (AD). Highly similar test scores were obtained when participants were tested in-person or via VC. Telecognitive assessment appears to be a valid means to conduct neuropsychological evaluation of older adults with cognitive impairment. Furthermore, continued development of VC technology has implications for expanding neuropsychological assessment options in under-served populations.

Cunningham, Alisa F.; Erisman, Wendy; Looney, Shannon E. (2008).  Higher Education in Michigan: Overcoming Challenges to Expand Access. Fact Sheet  [Institute for Higher Education Policy] 

This fact sheet presents a snapshot of important facts from "Higher Education in Michigan: Overcoming Challenges to Expand Access," which examines access to postsecondary degrees and institutions in underserved regions of Michigan. [For the full report, see ED501512.] | [FULL TEXT]