Pedagogy | Z

Zajonc, Arthur (2006).  Love and Knowledge: Recovering the Heart of Learning through Contemplation  Teachers College Record, 108, 9. 

The role of contemplative practice in adult education has a long history if one includes traditional monastic education in Asia and the West. Its use in American higher education is, however, more recent and more limited. Nonetheless, on the basis of evidence from surveys and conferences, a significant community of teachers exists at all levels of higher education, from community colleges to research universities, who are using a wide range of contemplative practices as part of their classroom pedagogy. In addition to existing well-developed pedagogical and curricular methods that school critical reasoning, critical reading and writing, and quantitative analysis, this article argues that we also require a pedagogy that attends to the development of reflective, contemplative, affective, and ethical capacities in our students. The significance of these is at least as great as the development of critical capacities in students. The rationale for the inclusion of contemplative modalities is articulated within this context. On the basis of considerable experience in teaching at Amherst College, I present an "epistemology of love," which emphasizes a form of inquiry that supports close engagement and leads to student transformation and insight. This approach to knowing is implemented in the Amherst College first-year course, Eros and Insight. It includes a specific sequence of contemplative exercises that are practiced by students and integrated with more conventional course content drawn from the arts and sciences. Our experience shows that students deeply appreciate the shift from conventional coursework to a more experiential, transformative, and reflective pedagogy.

Zamel, Vivian (2000).  Engaging Students in Writing-to-Learn: Promoting Language and Literacy across the Curriculum.  Journal of Basic Writing, 19, 2. 

Presents a talk addressing "language issues"--issues of student writers who are not native speakers of English, who are struggling with standard English usage, and/or who are unfamiliar with the conventions of academic discourse. Offers an explanation of what writing-to-learn pedagogy should be and do.

Zamel, Vivian; Spack, Ruth (2006).  Teaching Multilingual Learners across the Curriculum: Beyond the ESOL Classroom and Back Again  Journal of Basic Writing (CUNY), 25, 2. 

Language and literacy are situated in specific classroom contexts and are acquired as students engage with the subject matter and tasks of these courses. Therefore, all faculty--not just those who teach courses devoted to teaching English to speakers of other languages (ESOL)--are responsible for contributing to multilingual students' acquisition of language and literacy. Drawing on qualitative research studies, including first-hand accounts of students and faculty who discuss their expectations and experiences in undergraduate courses across the curriculum, this article explores how faculty can facilitate the learning of multilingual students. Analyzing a variety of pedagogical strategies that faculty across disciplines have enacted in their own teaching, we find confirmation for our theory that when writing is assigned for the purpose of fostering learning, and when instructors provide supportive feedback in response to what students have written, writing can serve as a powerful means for promoting language acquisition. Significantly, this across-the-curriculum research indicates that when faculty transform their pedagogy to meet the needs of ESOL students, all students benefit. This research also has critical implications for the philosophical and pedagogical perspectives that bear on ESOL teaching.

Zeikowitz, Richard E. (2002).  Befriending the Medieval Queer: A Pedagogy for Literature Classes.  College English, 65, 1. 

Analyzes Grendel ("Beowulf"), the Green Knight ("Sir Gawain and the Green Knight"), and the Pardoner ("The Canterbury Tales"). Notes that they are all "queer" characters in that they are not typical men of the time and they all pose a challenge or threat to normative homosocial desire. Suggests that traditional readings of these characters have obscured their disruptive queerness.

Zembylas, Michalinos (2002).  Constructing Genealogies of Teachers' Emotions in Science Teaching.  Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39, 1. 

Reports on a three-year ethnographic study with an experienced elementary science teacher and describes the role of positive and negative emotions in constructing science pedagogy, curriculum planning, and relationships with children and colleagues. 

Zembylas, Michalinos (2007).  Risks and Pleasures: A Deleuzo-Guattarian Pedagogy of Desire in Education  British Educational Research Journal, 33, 3. 

This article provides an analysis of a "pedagogy of desire" from a Deleuzo-Guattarian perspective. A pedagogy of desire can be theorised in ways that mobilise creative, transgressive and pleasurable forces within teaching and learning environments. It also enables a new view on affect in education as a "landscape of becoming" in which forces, surfaces and flows of teachers/students are caught up in a desiring ontology. This marks an attempt to reclaim the notion of desire away from a purely negative, repressive or libidinal framework. The claim of pedagogy of desire is that through the mobilisation and release of desiring production, teachers and students make available to themselves the powerful flows of desire, thereby turning themselves into subjects who subvert normalised representations and significations and find access to a radical self. Some strategies and practical implications are offered to suggest how this approach to pedagogy may function in educational contexts.

Zembylas, Michalinos; Bekerman, Zvi (2008).  Education and the Dangerous Memories of Historical Trauma: Narratives of Pain, Narratives of Hope  Curriculum Inquiry, 38, 2. 

The purpose of this article is to explore the meanings and implications of dangerous memories in two different sites of past traumatic memories: one in Israel and the other in Cyprus. Dangerous memories are defined as those memories that are disruptive to the status quo, that is, the hegemonic culture of strengthening and perpetuating existing group-based identities. Our effort is to outline some insights from this endeavor--insights that may help educators recognize the potential of dangerous memories to ease pain and offer hope. First, a discussion on memory, history and identity sets the ground for discussing the meaning and significance of dangerous memories in the history curriculum. Next, we narrate two stories from our longitudinal ethnographic studies on trauma and memory in Israel and Cyprus; these stories are interpreted through the lens of dangerous memories and their workings in relation to the hegemonic powers that aim to sustain collective memories. The two different stories suggest that collective memories of historical trauma are not simply "transmitted" in any simple way down the generations--although there are powerful workings that support this transmission. Rather, there seems to be much ambivalence in the workings of memories that under some circumstances may create openings for new identities. The final section discusses the possibilities of developing a pedagogy of dangerous memories by highlighting educational implications that focus on the notion of creating new solidarities without forgetting past traumas. This last section employs dangerous memories as a critical category for pedagogy in the context of our general concern about the implications of memory, history and identity in educational contexts.

Zembylas, Michalinos; Michaelides, Pavlos (2004).  The Sound of Silence in Pedagogy  Educational Theory, 54, 2. 

In this paper, we discuss some conditions for understanding silence as an act of self-criticality and caring for the Other, rather than as an instrumental or technical act identified through discipline or reflection. We first engage into a critical reading of Western and Eastern traditions of silence and use this to explore the pedagogical value of silence. Then we argue how an educational philosophy of silence can be a philosophy of otherness and theorize how teachers and students may reclaim a place for silence in educational settings. We contend that for that to happen teachers and students have to give up their position on the safe side of knowledge and embrace the inexpressible and unknowable.

Zembylas, Michalinos; Vrasidas, Charalambos (2005).  Levinas and the Inter-Face: The Ethical Challenge of Online Education  Educational Theory, 55, 1. 

The capacity of online education to produce learning environments that are supportive of hybrid identities, complex discourses, and multiple relations among learners raises questions about the ethical response of online educators. To investigate the ethics of online education, we discuss two questions: How are identity and communication constituted in online education? What are the features of an ethical pedagogy in online education? Such questions help us think in alternative ways about the ethical dimensions of online education. We argue that Emmanuel Levinas's views on ethics and otherness can overcome some of the ethical challenges inherent in online education by helping educators and learners become more aware of how they respond to the Other and consider their ethical responsibility to the Other's multiple and complex identities. An ethical pedagogy for online education that takes seriously the unknowable and irreducible Other has the potential to provide us with a different notion of what constitutes ethical pedagogies.

Zepke, Nick; Leach, Linda (2002).  Appropriate Pedagogy and Technology in a Cross-Cultural Distance Education Context.  Teaching in Higher Education, 7, 3. 

Discusses a project which explored more appropriate technological options for distance education with Maori than printed study guides and the Internet. Describes the theoretical base that underpins the project; develops a model for working cross-culturally in distance education; and provides a rationale for the use of an "intermediate" video indexing technology.

Zepke, Nick; Leach, Linda (2006).  Improving Learner Outcomes in Lifelong Education: Formal Pedagogies in Non-Formal Learning Contexts?  International Journal of Lifelong Education, 25, 5. 

This article explores how far research findings about successful pedagogies in formal post-school education might be used in non-formal learning contexts--settings where learning may not lead to formal qualifications. It does this by examining a learner outcomes model adapted from a synthesis of research into retention. The article first introduces the model. It then explores this model to identify pedagogy suitable for formal education. Next it asks whether this pedagogy may also be appropriate for use in four non-formal learning contexts: community development; adult literacy; workplace learning; and personal interest learning. While it gives a qualified "yes" to the question, it acknowledges some short comings in the pedagogy for non-formal adult learning. Finally, the article attempts to address short comings by integrating a critical dimension into the model, suggesting that learner outcomes in formal education could also benefit from the inclusion of this critical dimension.

Zepke, Nick; Leach, Linda (2007).  Educational Quality, Institutional Accountability and the Retention Discourse  Quality in Higher Education, 13, 3. 

Improving retention rates in post-school education has become a focus for policy-makers and researchers throughout the western world. Without doubt, any measure that helps students wishing to succeed in higher education is valuable. However, the dominance retention has achieved on a wide variety of educational fronts ranging from policy to pedagogy deserves to be scrutinized. This article questions three assumptions about retention: that government accountability measures can improve the quality of provision and subsequently retention; that institutions, by improving the quality of learning and teaching, can stem early departure; that retaining students in tertiary education is a universally good thing. Using evidence from New Zealand and elsewhere, the article suggests that accountability regimes may not markedly improve retention; institutions may have less influence over whether students leave or stay than assumed; that staying with study may not be good for everyone; and that measures to improve student outcomes may set up a deficit discourse.

Zevenbergen, Robyn (2000).  Pathways: Possibilities for Reform and Social Justice. A Reaction Paper to Smith. 

This paper contains a reaction to another paper that discusses possibilities for reforming mathematics education and social justice. The author identifies the conceptualization that the pathways that students take through mathematics should be meaningful and lead to productive lives in the new labor market. The hegemony of mathematics education as a traditional pedagogy informed by transmission models of teaching, the current push in education based on economic rationalism where discourses are based on accountability, and the need to ensure that the employing bodies and other interested parties, and the extended notion of pathways as a possibility for reform in mathematics education are discussed. | [FULL TEXT]

Zhang, Jane Hongjuan (2007).  Of Mothers and Teachers: Roles in a Pedagogy of Caring  Journal of Moral Education, 36, 4. 

Many writers have advocated caring as an alternative moral code for, and approach to, education. These pedagogies of care seek to create an environment or culture of caring in the classroom where children can live in and learn about care. Caring for children in a school invites comparison to the way mothers care for children in the home. This paper focuses on Jane Roland Martin's "The schoolhome" and related works, which appear to cloud distinctions between the role of teacher and that of mother. The author, sympathetic to the project of a pedagogy of caring, warns that the role of mother is not one to be emulated naively and examines the differences and similarities between the two roles in order to avoid predictable pitfalls and teacher burn-out, and concludes that we must value both the commonalities and distinctions between the two roles.

Zhang, Lawrence Jun (2004).  Awareness-Raising in the TEFL Phonology Classroom: Student Voices and Sociocultural and Psychological Considerations  [Online Submission] 

This paper reports on two phases of a study of a group of advanced TEFL (teachers-of-English-as-a-foreign-language) students. To raise their awareness of the importance of discourse intonation while they were receiving teacher training, this study focuses on examining their sociocultural and psychological inclinations in the choice of phonological models. The first phase is an exploration of their attitudes toward or voices about a native-speaker variety (British English) and a nonnative (Chinese EFL-speaker) variety of English pronunciation and intonation. The second reports on a didactic intervention study of the impact of activities that engaged the students in the awareness-raising of the importance of suprasegmental features, especially discourse intonation, on self-perceptions of their efficacy and confidence in communication. The results showed a systematic pattern of participant endorsement for a native-speaker model and a clear improvement in their perceptions of the importance of suprasegmental features of standard English because of teacher-student co-construction of meaning through interactive awareness-raising activities. The findings are discussed with reference to the students' sociocultural and psychological needs in TEFL training, particularly with reference to recent academic discourse on the issue of "linguistic imperialism" (Canagarajah, 1999; Phillipson, 1992, 1996) and EIL [English as an international language] in pedagogy (Jenkins, 1998, 2002) and their wider implications in typical EFL contexts. Appended are: (1) Sentences Used in Awareness-Raising Activities; (2) Participant Judgments of the Models/Varieties of English Produced by Native and Nonnative Speakers; (3) Participant Perceptions of Various Factors Relating to Native and Nonnative Models/Varieties of English Prior to the Awareness-Raising Activities; and (4) Participant Feedback After Awareness-Raising.  | [FULL TEXT]

Zhang, Lawrence Jun (2008).  Constructivist Pedagogy in Strategic Reading Instruction: Exploring Pathways to Learner Development in the English as a Second Language (ESL) Classroom  Instructional Science: An International Journal of the Learning Sciences, 36, 2. 

The study explored English as a Second Language (ESL) learner development. In particular, it focused on investigating learners' understanding of reading and their willingness to be engaged in strategic reading in participatory classroom activities. It also examined possible effects of such pedagogy on reading performance. The context was a two-month strategy-based reading instruction program, set within a constructivist framework. The program emphasized developing students' academic reading proficiency. The study, quasi-experimental in design, involved a control group and an experimental group, both of whom were ESL students from the People's Republic of China (PRC). The students were expected to satisfy an intensive English communication skills requirement in order to be successfully matriculated into English-medium universities in Singapore. The results showed that the teacher's strategy-based instructional intervention evolving around participatory activities affected changes in the ESL students' use of reading strategies and improvement in comprehension. These findings are discussed in relation to PRC students in study-abroad contexts, especially the cultures of learning that they bring along with them. Recommendations for further research are also made.

Zhang, Yixin (2002).  Project-Based Learning: Teachers Learning and Using High-Tech to Preserve Cajun Culture  Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 30, 3. 

Using project-based learning pedagogy in EdTc 658 Advances in Educational Technology, I have trained inservice teachers in Southwestern Louisiana with an advanced computer multimedia program called Director[R] (Macromedia, Inc.) [1]. The content of this course focused on modeling the project-based learning pedagogy and researching Acadian's traditions and legacy. With the multi-functions of microcomputers, new technologies were used to preserve and celebrate the local culture with superiority of text, graphics, animation, sound, and video. This article describes how several groups of school teachers in the surrounding areas of a regional state university of Louisiana learned computer multimedia using project-based learning and integrated their learning into local cultural heritage.

Zhang, Yixin (2005).  An Experiment on Mathematics Pedagogy: Traditional Method versus Computer-Assisted Instruction  [Online Submission] 

The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) versus traditional lecture-type instruction on triangles. Two quasi experiments were conducted in six 6th grade classes with a total of 108 students respectively. The students in the control groups were taught the concepts of triangles in their original classes, while the students in experimental groups were instructed in a computer lab. Experimental group students utilized Interactive Middle School Math Bundle, which is an interactive Webpage-typed tutorial. The tutorial, featuring descriptions, sound, animation and self-examination, allowed students to navigate and self-explore themselves. Independent-t was used to analyze the data. The analysis revealed that there was no statistically significant difference between the students' achievement in the control and experimental groups. The result implies that teachers could use computer-assisted instruction software only as a supplemental tool. Further research is recommended to examine effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction with an extended time span.  | [FULL TEXT]

Zhang, Yuanzhong (2001).  Re-Conceptualizing Engagement in Reading through Miscue Research. 

With the rise of the engagement perspective on reading, the concept of engagement has been increasingly applied in reading instruction and research without seriously questioning its underlying assumptions. By probing into the intellectual roots of the engagement perspective including Dewey's notion of reflective thinking, and Freire's critical pedagogy, this paper provides a critical analysis of the theoretical tentativeness and incoherence of the engagement perspective, and argues consequently for reconceptualizing engagement in reading through miscue research which is built on a unified theory of reading. Also, the possibility of integrating ideological ingredients into a new frame of conceptualization is explored. Contains 45 references and 4 tables of data.  | [FULL TEXT]

Zhao, Guoping (2007).  Culturally Appropriate Pedagogy: Is It Always Necessary? The Case of East Asians Learning Math and Science  Intercultural Education, 18, 5. 

"Culturally appropriate pedagogy" has become an important practice since 1990 to address the increasingly diverse student population in every part of the world. For all the good intentions, however, there is an inherent danger in identifying and accommodating students' cultural differences: we may fall into the trap of reifying superficially or even ethnocentrically understood cultural differences and pigeonholing students simply because of their assumed "cultural differences". How should we decide when a "culturally appropriate pedagogy" is necessary and how should a truly culturally appropriate pedagogy be designed? This study investigates a group of Chinese mathematicians/scientists/engineers' perspectives in order to shed light on these questions.

Zhao, Hong qin; Poulson, Louise (2006).  A Biographical Narrative Inquiry into Teachers' Knowledge: an Intergenerational Approach  Asia Pacific Education Review, 7, 2. 

This study is an investigation into Chinese EFL teachers' knowledge and understanding of teaching English as a foreign language within the context of a time of tremendous social change in China. In a medium-sized city, biographical narrative interviews and observation were used to three Chinese secondary EFL teachers, of three successive generations. An in-depth narrative analysis interpreting their metaphors, and constructing their life stories is employed to understand the biographical narrative data. It indicates how individual teacher's knowledge is both constrained and enabled by themselves and by the wider society they live in, and how change and continuity are intertwined in the teaching and learning practices of the three generations. This paper also addresses certain key issues in biographical narrative studies, namely subjectivity, representation, and cultural bearings, and teachers' knowledge, all of which constitute a form of pedagogy in educational research. | [FULL TEXT]

Zhong, Ying Xue; Shen, Hui Zhong (2002).  Where Is the Technology-Induced Pedagogy? Snapshots from Two Multimedia EFL Classrooms.  British Journal of Educational Technology, 33, 1. 

Examines two Chinese multimedia secondary classrooms teaching English as a foreign language to identify changes that have taken place in technologically integrated classroom practice. Concludes that the traditional Chinese notion of teaching and the role of the teacher need to be redefined to allow a learner-centered multimedia language classroom to emerge.

Zhou, Jun; Reed, Lynda (2005).  Chinese Government Documents on Teacher Education since the 1980S  Journal of Education for Teaching: International Research and Pedagogy, 31, 3. 

Since the 1980s, dozens of Chinese government documents on teacher education reform have been published. These documents have influenced the direction of teacher education change in China and will continue to do so in the years ahead. The first wave of documents focused on recovering the teacher education system. A second wave centered on building a mechanism of quality assurance for teaching as a profession. A third wave concentrated on raising the quality of teacher education. This paper summarizes the implementation of these documents and comments on the benefits and challenges of the major components of the three waves of reform as they relate to teacher education.

Zhu, Erping; Baylen, Danilo M. (2005).  From Learning Community to Community Learning: Pedagogy, Technology and Interactivity  Educational Media International, 42, 3. 

The authors of this article discuss three pedagogical approaches, learning community, community of practice and community learning, and analyse their significance for knowledge acquisition and construction in higher education. The authors also explore the roles of technology in creating adequate environments for educators to implement teaching practices supported by these approaches and explain, through an illustrative course example, how technology and teaching methods can be used together to promote interaction among learners and help them achieve course goals.

Zigo, Diane; Moore, Michael T. (2002).  Accountability and Teacher Education: Just Like Everyone Else--Teaching to the Test?  English Education, 34, 2. 

Notes that policy makers would like to "guarantee" that candidates from teacher education programs are content and pedagogy certified. Discusses how accountability assessment plays out in teacher education programs. Focuses on the tests required in Georgia, the Praxis Series of Professional Assessments for Beginning Teachers, developed and marketed by Educational Testing Service.

Zinkgraf, Magdalena (2003).  Assessing the Development of Critical Language Awareness in a Foreign Language Environment. 

Critical language awareness refers to how conscious people are of the ideologies hidden in the language. A study was carried out to determine whether such a critical perspective towards text could be developed in an English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) context. This paper evaluates the results of the application of methods of critical discourse analysis to a context where the "analysts" are non-native speakers of English, who seem to take for granted the true validity of messages conveyed through discourse in the press. University learners' reflections on the implementation of methodology point to some drawbacks, but also provide evidence of the positive effect the experience had, since most participants evinced a growing level of critical language awareness as well as a different attitude regarding texts from the British press. The results of the study also support the belief that these EFL learners need to be equipped with the necessary tools to take a critical stance toward the ideologies possibly hidden in discourse because of their status as future teachers and translators of English. Their professions demand an objective view of the language and a questioning attitude about what they teach and translate in the foreign language.   | [FULL TEXT]

Zirkel, Perry A. (2004).  Courtside: Settle Good?  Phi Delta Kappan, 86, 2. 

In the Spring of 1998 the Portland (Oregon) Public Schools hired Dr. Pamela Settlegoode as an adapted physical education teacher for the coming academic year. Her job was to provide adapated PE to students with disabilities in three different schools and to draft individualized education plans (IEPs) in accordance with federal law. Soon after starting in her position, Settlegoode became concerned about Portland's special education program. She had difficulty finding a place to teach her high school students, and material and equipment were often lacking, inadequate, or unsafe. When she spoke to her immediate supervisor, Susan Winthrop, about these problems, she was told that she was the only one who had ever made such complaints. At the end of the school year, Settlegoode wrote a 10-page letter to Winthrop's supervisor, expressing her concern that the adapted PE program suffered from problems of "systematic discrimination, maladministration, access, pedagogy, curriculum, equity, and parity," in violation of federal law. Drawing an analogy to earlier stages of the civil rights movement, she wrote that the illustrative experiences that she described presented "a portraiture of a form of education that is . . . all too familiar in this country. It wasn't too long ago when Black African Americans took a back seat on the American School bus (though in Portland, there's still lots of 'Separate, but equal' to go around)." She also criticized Winthrop for being too tied to the school bureaucracy to be in touch with the needs of students with disabilities. In the end the school board decided not to renew Settlegoode's contract. Settlegoode sued in federal court. This article examines this court case and the events leading up to it.

Zoreda, Margaret Lee (2001).  Encuentros esteticos deweyanos con la cultura popular anglofona en la ensenanza de ingles como lengua extranjera (EILE). Working Paper (Deweyan Aesthetic Encounters with Anglophone Popular Culture in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language. Working Paper). 

This paper discusses how the introduction of Anglophone popular culture in the English-as-a-foreign-language class can serve to foster critical aesthetic experiences. It is argued that the popular culture of the hegemonic Anglophone countries is already part of students' lives and for that reason should be included in any critical Anglophone studies curriculum. Contemporary theories of popular culture, literary criticism, and foreign language pedagogy are reviewed and a dialogue is established between these perspectives and Deweyan philosophy. The study of popular culture offer students opportunities for critical reflection, while allowing them to exercise their imaginative, emotional, and creative faculties. These aesthetic encounters also have the power to improve cross-cultural understanding. | [FULL TEXT]

Zoreda, Margaret Lee (2001).  Experiencias interculturales y la pedagogia de la anglofonia en la ensenanza de ingles como lengua extranjera (EILE) desde una perspectiva deweyana. Working Paper (A Deweyan Perspective on Cross-Cultural Experiences and Anglophone Pedagogy in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language. Working Paper). 

This paper discusses a framework for teaching English as a foreign language that incorporates significant cultural content and fosters critical encounters with Anglophone culture. It reviews relevant contemporary perspectives for understanding cross-cultural processes within the foreign language teaching environment with emphasis on the issue of identity formation. A dialogue is created between Anglophone culture and students' native culture, leading to development of intercultural intelligence. One element of such an approach might be the creation of Anglophone studies, which would draw on sociology, anthropology, history, and other disciplines in addition to linguistics. The study of postcolonial literature is recommended. | [FULL TEXT]

Zughoul, Muhammad Raji (2003).  Globalization and EFL/ESL Pedagogy in the Arab World. 

This paper attempts to define globalization based on the literature highlighting its major facets. By discussing the spread of English and motives for this kind of spread, the paper outlines some of the impacts the language of globalization has had on different societies/cultures and the kind of reactions this language has generated among different cultures. It contends that the spread of English as the language of globalization cannot be fully understood without realization of the hegemonic and imperialistic nature of English. It also shows that English is unilateral in vision and forms a real threat to other languages and cultures. However, it claims that despite the hegemonic and imperialistic nature of English, it is still badly needed in the Arab world for the purposes of communicating with the world, education, acquiring technology, and development at large. To teach English as a language of globalization, it is necessary to change older, more traditional methods of language instruction. It is important to solidify teaching of the native language, empower learners to have more self-confidence through learning English, teach the language as a foreign, rather than second language, and make changes in the curriculum in response to the needs of the learner and society. Shifts of emphasis have to be made in the teaching of language skills, specifically those within reading and writing. | [FULL TEXT]