Pedagogy | F

Fabry, Victoria J.; Eisenbach, Regina; Curry, Renee R.; Golich, Vicki L. (1997).  Thank You for Asking: Classroom Assessment Techniques and Students' Perceptions of Learning.  Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 8, 1. 

A study investigated the effect of classroom assessment techniques (CATs) on both content and process of college students' learning. Instructors ask students to provide regular, anonymous feedback about their understanding of course material and the effectiveness of class structure. Comments of students in biology, business management, political science, and literature courses suggest ways to improve pedagogy and student learning.

_____. (1998).  Facing the Challenge of Technology Integration. A Portfolio of Processes. Student Guide. 

This guide contains the following five sections: (1) Building a Sound Knowledge Base -- learning theories, societal implications of technology, multimedia and the World Wide Web (WWW), school restructuring, university teaching in the information age, distributed learning on the WWW, collaborative learning environments on the WWW, organizing and searching instructional material on the Internet, and students programming with multimedia tools; (2) Changing Mental Models -- operationalizing mental modes, and looking at computers as a language; (3) Teaching & Learning -- universal intellectual standards, the National Educational Technology Project (NETS), rubrics for the assessment of information literacy, evaluating web sites, virtual conferences, pedagogical resources on the Internet, reading lists on technology and pedagogy, collaborative projects on the Internet, instructional design tools on the Internet, WWW constructivist project design, WebQuests, using the Web for learning, authentic science investigations on the Web, Hands-On and Far-Out Physics, digital portfolios, and helping students assess their thinking; (4) Classroom and System Connections -- netcourses in virtual high schools, learning for the 21st century, and the information age school; and (5) Resources -- basic information on emerging technologies. | [FULL TEXT]

Failoni, Judith Weaver (1993).  Music as Means To Enhance Cultural Awareness and Literacy in the Foreign Language Classroom.  [Mid-Atlantic Journal of Foreign Language Pedagogy] 

The use of music in the foreign language classroom offers a unique approach to enhance students' awareness of another culture, and also can aid in the practice of communication skills. Music provides an interesting mirror of the history, literature, and culture of a country, that can be seen in song texts and in musical style. Musical styles and textual themes, along with pronunciation variations and dialects among countries speaking the same language, allow an opportunity for students to glimpse other societies representative of the target language. In addition, music texts offer a unique means of reinforcing speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills through specially designed activities. Suitable music choices range from classical art music to popular contemporary music of all styles, and include traditional folk and children's songs. Music may be a powerful motivator in the classroom due to American students' general interest in music. The use of music in the classroom is also justified by Gardner's educational theory of multiple intelligences, which implies that a person's intelligence in music can be utilized to achieve skills in non-musical areas such as foreign languages. | [FULL TEXT]

Faison, Ade W. (1999).  Partnership in the Classroom...from Hierarchical Management to Shared Leadership. 

A case study was conducted of a teacher participating in a course for teachers designed to help them create partnerships for learning with students. The Curriculum for Possibilities (CFP) is an in-service course in which teachers examine their underlying beliefs, decisions, and behaviors that dictate their styles and the context of possibilities for their students. The participant was a junior high school Spanish teacher enrolled in the CFP course. In addition to examining the changes experienced by the teacher, the study also explored ways to adapt the CFP course to make it more effective. The teacher was observed as a student in the CFP course and as a teacher in her classroom. The teacher began connecting with her students, with whom she initially had many disciplinary problems, after reflecting in the class on what school meant to her as a student. Her attitudes toward her colleagues improved, and she became more open to forming a partnership for learning with her students. Among the suggestions for improving the CFP class was establishing a one-on-one teacher-coach relationship to help the teacher develop as a practitioner of CFP pedagogy. Another recommendation is to obtain a baseline assessment of the teacher's class from the school's principal and then follow this with an assessment at midterm of the difference the course is making. | [FULL TEXT]

Falk, Joni; Drayton, Brian (1997).  Dynamics of the Relationships between Science Teachers and Scientists in an Innovative Mentorship Collaboration. 

This paper addresses the emerging relationship between teams of high school science teachers and ecologists who were paired in a year-long collaborative endeavor. The specific focus is on the benefits reported by the teachers and the ecologists participating in the Teacher Enhancement through Pedagogy and Ecology Project (TEPE). The teachers and ecologists agreed on the kinds of benefits exchanged but rank them differently in degree of importance. Although science content learning is an important value derived from this collaboration, more lasting impact on teachers' self-perceptions and practice seemed to derive from the experience of science practice and from the connection to the scientists' culture. The scientists benefit from teachers' engagement with their work in many ways including increased enthusiasm, research data, and a connection with the school environment.

Fang, Zhihui; Fu, Danling; Lamme, Linda L. (1999).  Rethinking the Role of Multicultural Literature in Literacy Instruction: Problems, Paradox, and Possibilities.  New Advocate, 12, 3. 

Uses a cultural studies framework to demonstrate how multicultural literature is often trivialized and misused in literature-based classrooms. Critiques actual literature discussions and examines the content of several Asian American children's books to move toward a more complete understanding of critical literacy pedagogy and what it means to "read" in a pluralistic society.

Farah, Badie N. (1993).  Teaching Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Course Description.  Education for Information, 11, 2. 

Describes the content, requirements, and pedagogy of a course in data communications and computer networks that was developed at Eastern Michigan University. Highlights include course organization; grading methods; term paper assignment; peer evaluation form for team projects; network application; and analysis and design of networks. (four references)

Farber, Kathleen S.; Armaline, William D. (1992).  Unlearning How to Teach: Restructuring the Teaching of Pedagogy.  Teaching Education, 5, 1. 

Teaching pedagogy involves more than applying techniques of curriculum and instructional development in the classroom. Metaphors of teaching are used to explore hidden assumptions about teaching, learning, knowledge, production, and culture embedded in traditional teaching paradigms. The role and function of teachers, given the differing conceptions of "teacher," are discussed.

Farmer, Frank (1990).  "A Language of One's Own": A Stylistic Pedagogy for the Dialogic Classroom.  Freshman English News, 19 n1 p16-17, 20-22 Fall 1990. 

Offers a writing pedagogy maintaining that the content of any particular knowledge is largely a function of the language in which that content is expressed. Argues that each of the many languages available within a given language is representative of an approach to knowledge. Discusses the theoretical base for the pedagogy. Offers a sequence of writing exercises.

Farmer, Frank M.; Arrington, Phillip K. (1993).  Apologies and Accommodations: Imitation and the Writing Process.  Rhetoric Society Quarterly, 23, 1. 

Argues that imitation as a pedagogy in the composition classroom--far from dead as most would assume--remains a reputable practice for some writers. Attempts to situate arguments for imitation in the larger context of the process movement. Explores complex historical, cultural, and theoretical reasons why some may object to imitation.

Farquhar, Sarah-Eve; Laws, Karina (1991).  A Preferred Child Care Education Service: The Quality of Te Kohanga Reo. 

After six decades of supposed equal resource sharing among all cultural groups, in 1982 the first Maori-initiated and operated child care center opened in New Zealand. Called a "Kohanga Reo" ("language nest"), it inaugurated a new movement, and by 1990 there were 612 such centers. This paper first describes the characteristics of Te Kohanga Reo programs, and then reports on a research study of parent attitudes toward them. Te Kohanga Reo are early childhood centers for the care and education of young children and the delivery of services to families. Most provide full-day care. They operate in a variety of settings, such as schools, community houses, private homes, churches, or Marae (Maori meeting places). They are licensed by the Ministry of Education. The centers feature immersion of children in the Maori language and culture, and "whanau" development: the involvement of Maori elders in Kohanga operation. Te Kohanga Reo is aimed at developing bilingual and bicultural children who can interact competently in both Maori and Pakeha worlds. The early education program fuses children's cultural needs with their developmental needs. Findings from a survey of 12 families in two programs suggest a high degree of congruency between people's aspirations and the pedagogy of Te Kohanga Reo. Contains 15 references. | [FULL TEXT]

Farquharson, Elsie A. (1990).  History, Culture, and the Pedagogy of the Primary Memorandum.  Scottish Educational Review, 22, 1. 

Pedagogical changes proposed in Scotland's Primary Memorandum of 1965 were not widely implemented because they were incompatible with the enveloping social structure and impeded transmission of the prevailing cognitive style. A macrosociological methodology committed to "structural perception" is proposed for analysis of teacher resistance to change. Contains 25 references.

Farrell-Racette, Sherry; Goulet, Linda; Pelletier, Joanne; Shmon, Karon (1996).  Aboriginal Cultures and Perspectives: Making a Difference in the Classroom. Diversity in the Classroom Series, Number Five. 

This document, the fifth in a series on diversity in the classroom, supports Canadian teachers of First Nations and Metis students. Section 1, "Introduction," provides a history of First Nations and Metis education and introduces the document. Section 2, "People of Many Nations," discusses environmental and linguistic diversity, legal terminology, and reclaiming names. Section 3, "So Who's This in My Classroom?" examines cultural characteristics and identity. Section 4, "What is First Nations and Metis Education?" discusses indigenous pedagogy, curriculum materials and resources, instructional methods and strategies, assessment and evaluation, and parent participation. Section 5, "What's In It For Me as a Teacher?" discusses the role of teachers working with aboriginal students. Section 6, "Creating a Positive Environment," discusses how to create positive, safe, welcoming, and joyful environments. Section 7, "Affirming the First Nations and Metis Child," discusses indigenous pedagogy; the four R's of classroom practice (respect, relevance, reciprocity, and responsibility); the child is not the teacher; and accepting language diversity. Section 8, "Challenging and Replacing Stereotypes," discusses social stereotyping, curriculum bias and ethnocentrism, what teachers can do, what is appropriate, how children develop views of other cultures, stages of development of racial attitudes and appropriate adult responses, and beyond the classroom. Section 9, "Becoming an Effective Teacher of First Nations and Metis Students," examines seven specific capabilities for effective cross-cultural educators. Appendix A contains lists of relevant books and videos. Appendix B highlights the work of many First Nations authors and illustrators.

Farris, Christine (1993).  Disciplining the Disciplines: The Paradox of Writing across the Curriculum Claims. 

Writing across the curriculum (WAC) will forever be caught in the following paradox: the rise of the research university has allowed for specialization that generates writing embedded in differentiated knowledge communities. However a WAC program may characterize the overarching importance of writing, its conception can never be the same as that of a disciplinary insider's. Dialogue among faculty can help set up a WAC program, but dialogue does not always result in critical transformation of pedagogy and curriculum. At universities that have WAC programs, there are usually some faculty who are already doing a good job of initiating students into their disciplines while at the same time inviting critique and revision of the very terms of analysis at that discipline's core. However, institutional constraints do play a part in what WAC can and cannot do: to incorporate writing could mean retooling not just the courses but the entire power structure and value system of the university. The accumulation of local knowledge from disciplines and a willingness to be changed by it as much as educators attempt to change it is WAC's greatest strength and WAC's future. Now that WAC programs are building up an accumulation of knowledge of their own, what they know is something to be reckoned with--an intersection of rhetoric, pedagogy, and a growing awareness of how disciplines communicate what they know. | [FULL TEXT]

Feldman, Arnold; Arambula-Greenfield, Teresa (1997).  Improving Science Teaching for All Students.  School Science and Mathematics, 97, 7. 

Describes an inservice program designed to enhance the knowledge and skills of elementary school teachers with regard to science content, effective teaching strategies, and gender equity. Finds that the project has a positive impact on science teaching content and pedagogy, and on female student interest and active participation in science.

Fellenz, Robert A., Ed.; Conti, Gary J., Ed. (1990).  Social Environment and Adult Learning. 

This monograph contains papers from an institute on the theme of adult learning in the social environment. "Bill Moyers' Journal: An Interview with Myles Horton" provides excerpts from a televised interview that discusses Myles Horton's life, work, and association with the Highlander Folk School. "Myles Horton's Views on Learning in the Social Environment" contains Horton's comments on his view of learning and responses to questions from a group that viewed the edited tape of the Moyers interview. "Radical Pedagogy: Constructing an Arch of Social Dreaming and a Doorway to Hope" (Peter McLaren) is theoretical in nature and shares some perspectives on social context from the viewpoint of an educator working within the critical educational tradition. "Learning in the Social Environment: A Crow Perspective" (Janine Pease-Windy Boy) reflects on the process through which the Crow Indians integrated their culture into a modern educational institution, the Little Big Horn Community College located on the Crow reservation in Montana. "From an Adult Educator's Perspective" (Lloyd Korhonen, Chere Coggins Gibson) contains immediate reactions to the two preceding presentations. "The Arch of Social Dreaming: Teaching Radical Pedagogy Under the Sign of Postmodernity" (Peter McLaren) expands on McLaren's earlier paper. | [FULL TEXT]

Fensham, Peter, Ed.; And Others (1994).  The Content of Science: A Constructivist Approach to Its Teaching and Learning. 

This book is a result of a workshop where 14 science educators were invited to draft chapters on the implications that the research studies in a specific content area of science have for its teaching. The relations between social forces and perceptions of purpose and content lay behind discussions in the workshop, and influenced the emergence of three major issues concerning science content: its variety; its complexity; and the relation between content and action. Chapters include: (1) "Science Content and Constructivist Views of Learning and Teaching" (Peter Fensham; Richard Gunstone; and Richard White) and "Constructivism: Some History" ((David Hawkins); (2) "Beginning to Teach Chemistry" (Peter Fensham); (3) "Generative Science Teaching" (Merlin Wittrock); (4) "Constructivism, Re-constructivism, and Tack-oriented Problem-solving" (Mike Watts); (5) "Structures, Force, and Stability. Design a Playground" (Cliff Malcolm); (6) "Pupils Understanding Magnetism in a Practical Assessment Context: The Relationship Between Content, Process and Progression" (Gaalen Erickson); (7) "Primary Science in an Integrated Curriculum" (Maureen Duke; Wendy Jobling; Telsa Rudd; and Kate Brass); (8) "Digging into Science-A Unit Developed for a Year 5 Class" (Kate Brass and Wendy Jobling); (9) "Year 3: Research into Science" (Kate Brass and Telsa Rudd); (10) "The Importance of Specific Science Content in the Enhancement of Metacognition" (Richard Gunstone); (11) "The Constructivist Paradigm and Some Implications for Science Content and Pedagogy" (Malcolm Carr; Miles Barker; Beverley Bell; Fred Biddulph; Alister Jones; Valda Kirkwood; John Pearson; and David Symington); (12) "Making High-tech Micrographs Meaningful to the Biology Student" (James Wandersee); (13) "Year 9 Bodies" (Anne Symons; Kate Brass; and Susan Odgers); (14) "Learning and Teaching Energy" (Reinders Duit and Peter Haeussler); (15) "Working from Children's Ideas: Planning and Teaching a Chemistry Topic from a Constructivist Perspective" (Philip Scott; Hilary Asoko; Rosalind Driver; and Jonathan Emberton); (16) "States of Matter-Pedagogical Sequence and Teaching Strategies Based on Cognitive Research" (Ruth Stavy); (17) "Pedagogical Outcomes of Research in Science Education: Examples in Mechanics and Thermodynamics" (Laurence Viennot and S. Rozier); and (18) "Dimensions of Content" (Richard White). | [FULL TEXT]

Fenstermacher, Gary D. (1995).  The Absence of Democratic and Educational Ideals from Contemporary Educational Reform Initiatives.  Educational Horizons, 73, 2. 

The last 10 years of educational reform are marked by the near-complete absence of the ideas and ideals of democracy as well as those of education. Educators must work to regain understanding of democracy and its present state, strive to help students acquire traits of character and habits of mind, and develop a more profound conception of what it means to educate others.

Fenwick, D. Tara (1998).  Managing Space, Energy, and Self: Junior High Teachers' Experiences of Classroom Management.  Teaching and Teacher Education, 14, 6. 

Examines what junior high teachers believe they manage in their classrooms and how they perceive and use strategies in this management. Observations and interviews highlight three themes that convey the complexity of teacher management and strategies: teachers' management classroom space, the energy of people and pedagogy within classroom space, and their own identity by adapting and shifting within the energy.

Fenwick, Tara (1996).  Balancing on the Edge of Surprise: Managing Junior High Classrooms. 

In an exploration of junior high school teachers' meanings of success, it was discovered that teachers tend to talk about their practice in terms of management strategies. Management was clearly significant for teachers as a metaphor for their ways of living, instructing, developing student responsibility, and building community within the fluid contingencies of junior high school life. However, management is a rich concept stretching beyond controlling routines and discipline to represent a way of being that teachers seem to have developed to live on the edge of surprise. This paper examines what teachers believe they manage in their daily work in classrooms with adolescents, and how teachers think about and use strategies in management. Three dimensions are presented here to convey the complexity and flexibility of teacher management and its strategies. First, teachers manage the space of the classroom, including its objects, movement, temporality, and history. Second, teachers manage the energy of people and pedagogy within this space. Third, teachers manage their own identity or the "teacher self" by adapting and shifting within this energy while remaining firmly anchored to commitment and a strong belief in purpose throughout the fluctuating realities of classroom life.   | [FULL TEXT]

Fenwick, Tara; Parsons, Jim (1995).  Who Is Steven Covey, and What Can We Learn from Critically Analyzing His Work? 

This paper adopts a Christian perspective in a self-reflexive analysis of Steven Covey and his popular self-help book, "The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People." It opens by giving a brief overview of the author, describes his guiding idea of "principle-centered learning," and then discusses the book's spiritual foundations. Addressed next is an explanation of why a critique of Covey's book is important. Described here is how the critique took form and the different view points, such as that of the post-modernist critiques, that were adopted. It was initially hoped that Covey's book could be used to set up a critical framework that might adjudicate pop bestsellers that used spirituality and to explore the increasing appetite for such books' appeal among mainstream North Americans. The book's contents are described by providing answers to two questions: (1) What does Covey say?; and (2) What is the source of appeal in Stephen Covey's ideas? Critiques of Covey are examined in the next section. Some ideological positions provided here are a post-modern perspective, a feminist perspective, a perspective of critical pedagogy, a non-functionalist perspective, and a perspective of "exclusionary representation." The paper closes with 14 questions raised by this study. Contains 20 references. | [FULL TEXT]

Fenwick, Tara; Parsons, Jim (1998).  Boldly Solving the World: A Critical Analysis of Problem-Based Learning as a Method of Professional Education.  Studies in the Education of Adults, 30, 1. 

Examines the problem-based perspective and the pedagogy of problem-based learning. Outlines alternative philosophical perspectives for professional education.

Ferganchick-Neufang, Julia (1996).  Women's Work and Critical Pedagogy.  Writing Instructor, 16, 1. 

Focuses on female teachers of writing to examine the relationship between female writing teachers and liberatory (critical) pedagogy. Sees a need to work toward a democratic curriculum in the teaching of writing but sees failure if women's experiences continue to be disregarded.

Fergenson, Laraine (1992).  Politics and the English Instructor: Using Political Literature To Teach Composition. 

One of the most interesting controversies in the theory of teaching composition--and one that has profound consequences for classroom practice--is the debate over "ideological" or "radical" pedagogy. In the minds of most mainstream Americans, an ideological education is associated with dictatorship and state control of education. Every pedagogy, to quote James Berlin (1988) "is imbricated in ideology--a set of tacit assumptions about what is real, what is good, what is impossible, and how power ought to be distributed." Attempting to avoid all controversy and all political discussion can lead to textbooks and classroom atmospheres that are hostile to the values of critical inquiry. A composition instructor, noting the boredom his students showed with their standard collection of essays, created, along with his students, a series of essay topics drawn from the most important problems facing society. Students' essays written in this manner were better in form and content. Another composition instructor experienced a "teaching epiphany" during a discussion of an essay concerning what motivated people to risk their lives to help save Jews from Nazis. As the students discussed what they would do, they recalled Martin Luther King's "Letter from Birmingham Jail," which addressed that very issue. A passionate and heated discussion ensued, which lasted to the end of the class period and spilled out into the hallway after class. Political literature can play an essential role in motivating students to think deeply, in teaching them to write better, and in preparing them for the world beyond the classroom. | [FULL TEXT]

Ferguson, Barry, Ed. (1991).  The Anglican Church and the World of Western Canada, 1820-1970. 

This book consists of 17 essays concerning the history of the Anglican church and its missions in western Canada. Essays examine the social and political role of the Anglican church, its influence among Native and non-Native populations, its effects on educational development, and the status of women in the church. Chapters 6, 8, 9, and 14 are specifically education-related. The introductory essay examines ways in which the mainstream, secular study of Canadian history has touched on church and religious history. Individual essays are as follows: (1) "The Church of England and the Canadian West" (L. G. Thomas); (2) "'Insidious' Sources and the Historic Interpretation of the Pre-1870 West" (Frits Pannekoek); (3) "Anglican Archives in Rupert's Land" (Wilma MacDonald); (4) "The Public Institution as Church Archivist: Anglican and Other Church Records" (Keith Stotyn); (5) "Anglican Missionaries as Agents of Acculturation: The Church Missionary Society at St. Andrew's, Red River, 1830-1870" (Robert Coutts); (6) "Father Cockran and His Children: Poisonous Pedagogy on the Banks of the Red" (George van der Goes Ladd); (7) "John Smithurst and the Ordination Controversy: Reflections on Red River Society in the 1840s" (F. A. Peake); (8) "Robert Machray and the Foundation of the University of Manitoba in 1877" (F. Wilmot); (9) "The Church of England and the Manitoba School Question" (Lawrence Hackett); (10) "THe Anglican Church in Western James Bay: Positive Influence or Destructive Force?" (John S. Long); (11) "Bishop Bompas and the Canadian Church" (Kerry Abel); (12)"Asking for All Sorts of Favours: The Anglican Church, the Federal Government and the Natives of the Yukon Territory, 1891-1909" (Ken Coates); (13) "The Church of England and the Immigrants in the Dioceses of Qu'Appelle" (Trevor Powell); (14) "The Fellowship of the Maple Leaf Teachers" (Marilyn Barber); (15) "Eva Hasell and the Caravan Mission" (Vera K. Fast); and (16) "The Bishop's Messengers: Women in Ministry in Northwestern Manitoba, 1928-1979" (Alyson Barnett-Cowan). Includes information about contributors and an index.

Ferguson, Phyllis M.; Young, Terrell A. (1995).  Kwanzaa: A Holiday of Principles.  Reading Horizons, 35, 5. 

Describes the content and pedagogy of a three-week unit using "Kwanzaa" to validate the Swahili roots of African American cultural heritage. Emphasizes that Kwanzaa is a holiday of principles that applies to all students by emphasizing community, purpose, and personal and collective action.

Fernandez, deKoven Pelton; Astuto, Terry A. (1994).  How Feminism Can Help Us Not Shortchange Girls. 

What would a school that is responsive to the needs of girls look like? This paper presents findings of a study that sought to synthesize research and commentaries that develop, articulate, or use a feminist critique. It also attempted to identify a set of feminist thought and action to serve as building blocks of an alternative structure for schools and suggests how those principles might be played out in restructuring schools. The study conducted an analysis of secondary sources that included a comprehensive search strategy and a thorough review of the sources which contained feminist thought and/or applied feminist thought to education or inquiry. Six feminist themes emerged that are relevant to the organization of schools: freedom, service, community, change and transformation, convergence, and the celebration of contradiction. Each of the six themes is related to the three components of schools--organization, curriculum, and pedagogy. These themes, which might serve as the building blocks of a different kind of school organization, define a holistic, cohesive, and functional framework for a more responsive kind of school. | [FULL TEXT]

Fernandez-Balboa, Juan-Miguel (1995).  Reclaiming Physical Education in Higher Education through Critical Pedagogy.  Quest, 47, 1. 

The theoretical basis and practical alternatives of critical pedagogy are applied to graduate courses in physical education by illustrating how critical pedagogy affirms the personal and bridges it to the political; by analyzing and deconstructing the faulty paradigmatic assumptions of physical education in higher education; and by providing an example of implementing critical pedagogy in the university classroom.

Fernandez-Balboa, Juan-Miguel, Ed. (1997).  Critical Postmodernism in Human Movement, Physical Education, and Sport. 

This collection of texts proposes alternative ways to examine human movement, discussing the traditional role of human movement professionals as agents of social and cultural reproduction. Part 1, The Human Movement Profession in the Postmodern Era: Critical Analyses, includes the first 10 chapters: (1) "Introduction: The Human Movement Profession--From Modernism to Postmodernism" (Juan-Miguel Fernandez-Balboa); (2) "Sociocultural Aspects of Human Movement: The Heritage of Modernism, the Need for a Postmodernism" (George H. Sage); (3) "Gender Discrimination in Norwegian Academia: A Hidden Male Game or an Inspiration for Postmodern Feminist Praxis" (Gerda von der Lippe); (4) "Schooling Bodies in New Times: The Reform of School Physical Education in High Modernity" (David Kirk); (5) "Health, Freedom, and Human Movement in the Postmodern Era" (Larry Fahlberg and Lauri Fahlberg); (6) "A Critical-Postmodern Perspective on Knowledge Development in Human Movement" (Robert Brustad); (7) "Performance and Participation Discourses in Human Movement: Toward a Socially Critical Physical Education" (Richard Tinning); (8) "Physical Education Teacher Preparation in the Postmodern Era: Toward a Critical Pedagogy" (Juan-Miguel Fernandez-Balboa); (9) "Critical Moral Issues in Teaching Physical Education" (Susan Schwager); and (10) "Toward a Department of Physical Cultural Studies and an End to Tribal Warfare" (Alan Ingram and Friends). Part 2, Critiques of the Critical Postmodern Analyses of the Human Movement Profession, includes the last 3 chapters: (11) "Transformation in the Postmodern Era: A New Game Plan" (Linda L. Bain); (12) "A Practical Inquiry into the Critical-Postmodernist Perspective in Physical Education" (Don Hellison); and (13) "Defining the Dreaded Curriculum: Tensions Between the Modern and the Postmodern" (Catherine D. Ennis). Questions for reflection are included.

Fernandez-Balboa, Juan-Miguel; Marshall, James P. (1994).  Dialogical Pedagogy in Teacher Education: Toward an Education for Democracy.  Journal of Teacher Education, 45, 3. 

Teacher education should represent, reflect, and advance democratic principles. This article defines classroom dialog, suggests ways of implementing dialogical pedagogy, and analyzes the implications of dialogical pedagogy for teacher education. Four aspects of applying dialogical pedagogy are discussed: benefits of dialog, barriers to dialog, participant rights, and themes of dialog. (43 references)

Fey, Marion H. (1992).  Building Community through Computer Conferencing and Feminist Collaboration. 

A composition instructor inquired into the effect of computer conferencing in two composition courses taught entirely through computer-mediated instruction and infused with the pedagogy of feminist collaboration. The instructor encouraged the naming of self and the developing of relationship. The instructor prepared a composition curriculum, "Writing for the 21st Century," grounded on collaborative composition theory and reflecting the principles of a "woman-focused" classroom. The curriculum linked a critique of cultural institutions to personal experience. Early conversations reflected that even in asynchronous computer networking, personal connection was possible. Small groups offered the most opportunity for developing relationships. For the final project, students wrote to a group member to share their refections on that student's collaboration and, then, with insights from these views and from their own investigations, constructed a final paper to interpret their own collaboration. As students and the instructor reflected on the messages sent through the free space of computer conferencing, they were opening themselves to know more fully the authors of the messages. The environment in the computer culture went far beyond the instructor's expectations in establishing a community of trusting, diverse individuals--a community required both in the composition room and in the larger society. (Several examples of students' computer messages are included.) | [FULL TEXT]

Fey, Marion Harris (1994).  Finding Voice through Teacher-Student Collaboration in a Feminist Research Project: Long-Term Effects. 

In a feminist classroom an instructor who acts as an "interested party" rather than an authority, fosters an environment of care and connection which can result in life-changing discoveries for the participants. Drawing on David Bleich's conception of a "socially generous research" that removes hierarchical barriers between teacher and student, a study questioned participants in three feminist composition courses at a de-centralized branch of SUNY Empire State College where computer networking was the primary mode of writing instruction. The courses were organized around a set of professional readings concerned with issues of power: Walker's "In Search of Our Mother's Gardens," Glaspell's "Trifles," Rodriguez's "The Achievement of Desire," and Rich's "When the Dead Awaken." Students responded to professional readings through large-group "discussion" and prepared "response writings" for small-group peer review. Sharing of personal experience among disparate individuals on the computer's free space and struggling to be understood in that public context contributed to clearer, more developed writing and also to new voices. One Spanish-speaking student who had lost her voice when forced to speak English in the public schools, found that peer collaboration on the computer allowed a special in-between space, a site for shaping voice through relationship, for responding through mind and heart. Responding to a questionnaire three years after the course was completed, many of the students maintained that the course had had fundamental effects on their lives. | [FULL TEXT]

Fey, Marion Harris; Smith, Constance F. (1999).  Opening Spaces for Collaboration and Inquiry in Teacher Education Classrooms: The Place of Resistance.  Action in Teacher Education, 21, 3. 

Many students depend on teachers' authority for answers, resisting pedagogy emphasizing inquiry and collaboration. Case studies are presented of two teacher educators who helped students understand how children make sense of ideas, focusing on developing communities where students felt safe to voice their ideas. They encountered resistance but discovered that negotiating through conflict could lead to the development of voice.

Field, James C.; Jardine, David W. (1993).  Whole Language as an Ecological Phenomenon: On Sustaining the Agonies of Innovative Language Arts Practices. 

In the area of language instruction, a network of ecological relationships exists among the teacher, the child, and the text--the sustaining and nurturing of these relationships is at the heart of whole language instruction. Moreover, this network of relationships falls prey to neither of the unsustainable extremities of "gericentrism" (appealing to the authority of age, convention, or tradition) and "pedocentrism" (child-centered pedagogy). This notion of "ecological relationships" can be used as a metaphor to make possible a different reading of some controversies in the area of whole language instruction. Whole language is an attempt to reconnect language with the vitality of children's (and adults's) lives, experiences and imagination, and to reconnect this vitality to the grander texts and textures of the Earth. What whole language has to offer, and what it is up against, links up to deep-seated philosophical and epistemological and cultural tides and currents that must be unearthed if the living interconnections that have made whole language so attractive are to be nurtured. Whole language opens up the risk-laden task of paying attention to what is needed specifically, with this task of writing, and that moment of reading. Whole language makes teachers' lives more difficult and risk-laden, and makes their relations with language and with children more vibrant and full, more painful and more joyful. Whole language instruction, at its heart, is an attentiveness to signs of teachers' deep engagement with language. | [FULL TEXT]

Field, James C.; Olafson, Lori J. (1999).  Caught in the Machine: Resistance, Positioning, and Pedagogy.  Research in Middle Level Education Quarterly, 22, 2. 

Discusses an ethnographic study into the phenomenon of resistance in a middle school, focusing on seven students in seventh grade. Proposes the need to negotiate classroom life in ways that take into account individuals' backgrounds, strengths, and needs, and the need to create a place where identity and difference can exist in respectful relationships.

Field, John (1992).  Learning through Labour. Training, Unemployment and the State 1890-1939. Leeds Studies in Continuing Education. 

This book presents the results of a study of the British work camps that were initiated in the 1920s as a result of the political need to reduce unemployment among ex-servicemen and that evolved in 1929 into a national system of residential centers to "recondition" long-term unemployed men by exposing them to hard physical labor. The following aspects of work camps are examined in detail: origins of contemporary public training policy (unemployment and learning through labor, unemployment and social policy, work camps in public memory); work as punishment and Utopia (labor colonies before and after 1918); transformation of training after the First World War (changes in government policy, women wartime workers, veterans, juvenile training); education for imperial and countryside settlement; transference policy and the work camps; life inside the camps (recruitment, government, free time, and placement); women and the domestic paradigm (service and education, Central Committee on Women's Training and Employment, home training centers); protest and resistance; differing approaches to the pedagogy of labor in Canada, Germany, the United States, and elsewhere; and labor in the historiography of adult education. Contains 152 references. | [FULL TEXT]

Fiero, Gloria K. (1996).  Global Humanities: Pedagogy or Politics.  Interdisciplinary Humanities, 13, 1. 

Conceptualizes a new vision of multicultural education going beyond the piecemeal inclusion of previously underrepresented cultures. Global humanities emphasizes the interactivity and interdependence inherent in cross-cultural interrelationships. Briefly discusses the scholarship of Janet Abu-Lughod and its antecedents.

Filax, Gloria (1997).  Resisting Resistors: Resistance in Critical Pedagogy Classrooms.  Journal of Educational Thought/Revue de la Pensee Educative, 31, 3. 

Contends that resistance is not adequately problematized in the critical pedagogy literature. Asserts that clarification is necessary to point out the multiple resistances in classrooms and their implications rather than situating resistance only with students and only in relation to social inequality or critical pedagogy. (16 citations)

Finamore, Maria Grazia Madonna (1993).  Foreign Language Education in the Middle School: A Special Education Teacher's View.  [Mid-Atlantic Journal of Foreign Language Pedagogy] 

Because of the emphasis placed on language and the language process by both foreign language and special education, one must examine both the theoretical and the methodological similarities between the two areas. Even though differences between the students should be noted, what really needs to be examined is the learning process itself. This report examines several similarities between foreign languages and special education. Students in both areas have a gap in learning--special education in the total learning experience and foreign language in the acquisition of a second language. Both have individual learning styles that require attention, and both need meaningful activities to aid in the total language learning process. Both need individualization in the program. Both areas are and should be student-centered fields aimed at increasing the ability to use one's communicative skills to the best of one's ability. Although there is a wealth of research on elementary and adult learners and second-language acquisition, there is virtually no research on the middle school population. It is suggested that foreign language education should look to special education as well as other fields in search of similarities aimed at improving the teaching of foreign languages at all levels. | [FULL TEXT]

Finders, Margaret J. (1997).  Just Girls: Hidden Literacies and Life in Junior High. 

This publication focuses on the role of literacy in the social development of five academically successful 12- and 13-year-old girls of middle- and working-class and Euro-American background residing in the rural Midwest. For the study, literacy is broadly defined to include signing yearbooks, writing notes and bathroom graffiti, reading teen magazines, doing homework together, and leisure time reading. These literacy events are construed to be just as important as reading novels and short stories in the classroom. Study participants the most popular girls in school, and "tough cookies," the "nicest girls, every teacher's ideal students." Chapter one describes the school and the context of the study. Chapter two explores literacy's role in expressing allegiance and a sense of belonging through yearbook rituals. Chapters three and four look at literacy and each friendship circle. Chapter five summarizes classroom roles and implications for pedagogy.

Fine, Michelle, Ed. (1994).  Chartering Urban School Reform. Reflections on Public High Schools in the Midst of Change. 

This book presents essays written by school reformers that discuss the reform movement and examine the partnership that inspired the creation of small, intimate school communities known as charters. They also reflect on the comprehensive changes that inform each charter and the personal and collective struggles to institutionalize these new communities. Essays and their authors are as follows: "Chartering Urban School Reform" (Michelle Fine); "The Development of Schools that Practice Reflaction" (Richard W. Clark); "The Professional Development School as a Strategy for School Restructuring: The Millard Fillmore High School--Temple University Connection" (Morris J. Vogel and Essie Abrahams-Goldberg); "Charters and Restructuring" (Bernard J. McMullan); "Transforming Ourselves: Becoming an Inquiring Community" (Virginia Vanderslice and Shirley Farmer); "'Now Everybody Want to Dance' Making Change in an Urban Charter" (Jody Cohen); "Interpreting Social Defenses: Family Group in an Urban Setting" (Linda Powell); "When 'Discipline Problems' Recede: Democracy and Intimacy in Urban Charters" (Nancie Zane); "Co-Making Ethnography: Moving into Collaboration" (Pat Macpherson); "Learning in the Afternoon: When Teacher Inquiry Meets School Reform" (Susan L. Lytle, and others); "Language Inquiry and Critical Pedagogy: Co-Investigating Power in the Classroom" (Bob Fecho); and "Girl Talk: Creating Community through Social Exchange" (Diane R. Waff). Contains an index.

Finke, Laurie (1993).  Knowledge as Bait: Feminism, Voice, and the Pedagogical Unconscious.  College English, 55, 1. 

Examines how all pedagogies, including feminist pedagogy, are driven by psychic interplays of desire and power between students and teachers. Describes how psychoanalytic thinking, along with notions of voice, enable feminist teachers to come to terms with the roles of power and authority.

Finn, Patrick J. (1999).  Literacy with an Attitude: Educating Working-Class Children in Their Own Self-Interest. 

Teachers, parents, and older students need to understand the mechanisms that have subverted honest efforts to give working class children in the United States a decent education. This book discusses why this has happened and suggests ways to develop a pedagogy that makes progressive methods, education that empowers, and powerful literacy possible with working class students. These methods, based on the work of Paulo Freire, help teachers support each other for equity and justice. The chapters are: (1) "Title, Author, and Hard-Bitten Schoolteachers"; (2) "A Distinctly Un-American Idea: An Education Appropriate to Their Station"; (3) "Harsh Schools, Big Boys, and the Progressive Solution"; (4) "Oppositional Identity: Identifying 'Us' as 'Not Them'"; (5) "The Lads"; (6) "Changing Conditions--Entrenched Schools"; (7) "Class, Control, Language, and Literacy"; (8) "Where Literacy 'Emerges'"; (9) "Where Children Are Taught To Sit Still and Listen"; (10) "The Last Straw: There's Literacy, and Then There's Literacy"; (11) "Literacy with an Attitude"; (12) "Not Quite Making Literacy Dangerous Again"; (13) "Making Literacy Dangerous Again"; (14) "Taking Sides"; and (15) "Mad as Hell, and Not Going To Take It Any More."

Fiol-Matta, Liza, Ed.; Chamberlain, Mariam K., Ed. (1994).  Women of Color and the Multicultural Curriculum: Transforming the College Classroom. 

This volume documents the Ford Foundation's Mainstreaming Minority Women's Studies program to encourage curriculum transformation by concentrating on the issues, learning, research, and achievements of women of color in the United States. Part 1 is on faculty development and begins with two essays: "Shifting Models, Creating Visions: Process and Pedagogy for Curriculum Transformation" (Karen E. Rowe); and "Understanding Outcomes of Curriculum Transformation" (Paula Ries). Part 1 then focuses on faculty development, with model syllabi drawn from the George Washington University (District of Columbia) and the University of California at Los Angeles. Each is accompanied by an introductory essay by the seminar facilitators. Part 2 presents undergraduate syllabi representative of the course revisions produced by the program's seminars. Two general essays in Part 2 are "Litmus Tests for Curriculum Transformation" (Liza Fiol-Matta) and "Reflections on Teaching Literature by American Women of Color" (King-Kok Cheung). The remainder of Part 2 presents specific curricula in the following areas: American studies, art and architecture, Barnard College first-year seminars, history, literature, theology, writing, anthropology, economics, geography, political science, psychology, and sociology. Part 3 focuses on Puerto Rican studies. The essay, "An Interdisciplinary Guide for Research and Curriculum on Puerto Rican Women" (Edna Acosta-Belen et al.) introduces the 10-unit curriculum.

Firdyiwek, Yitna (1999).  Web-Based Courseware Tools: Where Is the Pedagogy?  Educational Technology, 39, 1. 

Examines three integrated-courseware systems for Web-based online courses and considers the integration of pedagogy in courseware authoring systems. Topics include knowledge; learning; motivation; and pedagogy based on effective use of electronic learning environments for the development of cognitive skills through access to information, interactivity with tools, and communication.

Fischer, Ruth Overman (1997).  Applied Scholarship in the Community Service Link: From Classroom Texts to Classroom as Text. 

Students entering the university have to create a space for themselves, not only in the writing classroom, but in their relationships with faculty, other students, and their evolving selves. A curricular support mechanism helps students enlarge their educational process. Such a support system, the Linked Courses Program, has been in operation at George Mason University since the fall of 1992. Designed primarily to provide comprehensive support for first-semester freshmen, the program links various introductory courses in disciplines such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, government, philosophy, communication, and biology with designated sections of first-year composition (FYC). One link is the Community Services Link (CSL), a 3-way cluster joining introductory sociology, University 100 (a credit course for transition into the university), and FYC. The pedagogy of FYC, taught in a computer classroom, was based on the writing process model. "Writing to learn" and "writing to show learning" assignments were used in the sociology class. E-mail and field notes were also used effectively. The underlying premise of the sociology course was the concept of the sociological imagination--the capacity to see interrelations between an individual's biography and his/her time and place. As part of University 100, students formed a socially active community through the service component of the CSL. They performed community service in an elementary school located in an ethnically and socioeconomically diverse neighborhood and were given opportunities to connect their experiences with the concepts they were studying in FYC and sociology. | [FULL TEXT]

Fischman, Gustavo E. (1999).  A Call for a Multicultural Revolution. Challenges & Hopes: Multiculturalism as Revolutionary Praxis. An Interview with Peter McLaren.  Multicultural Education, 6, 4. 

Discusses Peter McLaren's theories of critical pedagogy, which is underwritten by a Marxist philosophy and a critique of global capitalism. McLaren believes that capitalist exploitation is the driving force for the institutionalized racism that is so prevalent in Western society.

Fisher, Charles; And Others (1994).  Classroom Technology and the New Pedagogy.  Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 5, 2. 

Notes that, whereas technology in the classroom has served primarily as a means of making learning more efficient without affecting broader aims, that role is changing as a new pedagogy emerges, one that alters both the means and ends of education. Outlines four general themes that distinguish the emergent pedagogy and the role of technology in its emergence.

Fisher, Charles; And Others (1994).  The Knowledge Express Project: Using Technology to Support Changes in Pedagogy.  Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 5, 2. 

Describes the introduction into a fourth-grade classroom with access to technology, a new pedagogy emphasizing prior learning, social interaction, and learning processes. Notes the tensions that arose within the class as well as between the class and segments of the local educational system, as well as specific incentives and impediments to change in classroom power relationships and pedagogy.

Fishman, Stephen M.; McCarthy, Lucille (1998).  John Dewey and the Challenge of Classroom Practice. The Practitioner Inquiry Series. 

This book represents the first systematic exploration of Deweyan pedagogy in an actual classroom since studies of John Dewey's own laboratory school at the turn of the century. The co-authors dialogue back and forth in the book's introductory essays about the importance of John Dewey today and about their histories with John Dewey. Part I, using accessible language, discusses Dewey's educational theory in the context of Dewey's ideology and process philosophy. Part II, examines one author's own Introduction to Philosophy class. In doing so, the book models a collaborative form of practitioner inquiry and brings to life such complex Deweyan concepts as student-curriculum integration, interest and effort, and continuity and interaction.

Fishman, Stephen M.; McCarthy, Lucille Parkinson (1996).  Teaching for Student Change: A Deweyan Alternative to Radical Pedagogy.  College Composition and Communication, 47, 3. 

Argues on behalf of a classroom modeled after John Dewey, one that advances social critique and reform but nevertheless values community over radical pedagogy that involves direct confrontation and argumentation.

Fitz, John; And Others (1994).  Grant-Maintained Status: School Autonomy or State Control. 

Since 1988, the governance and organization of education in England and Wales have moved decisively in the direction of decentralization and site-based management. Under the Education Reform Act of 1988 and the Education Act of 1993, local education agencies (LEAs) have acquired new responsibilities via local management of schools (LMS) and grant-maintained (GM) or "opted out" status. In addition, the moves toward school autonomy must be placed in a framework that requires schools to compete for pupils within local educational markets. However, in England and Wales, there is a tension between managerial decentralization and educational centralization. This paper describes how this tension arose and its implications for the scope and direction of grant-maintained schools' policy. The first section discusses the five different principles of school autonomy--state control, community responsiveness, management, curriculum and pedagogy, and pupil identity. The second section describes the background of the GM schools' policy. Recent developments in the policy are highlighted in the third section. The concluding section reviews the extent to which GM schools are state or community regulated and responsive, and identifies trends for 1989-94 in the areas of the five principles of school autonomy. | [FULL TEXT]

Fitzpatrick, F. J.; And Others (1994).  Critiquing the Computer-Aided Design of Dental Prostheses. 

This paper describes RaPiD, a computer-aided assistant for the design of dental prostheses called removable partial dentures. The user manipulates icons directly to indicate the desired design solution to a given clinical situation. A developing design is represented as a logic database of components in a design; expert rules are applied as integrity constraints governing valid database transactions/design alterations. RaPiD has two modes of operation: manual mode designed for educational use (at either "student" or "expert" level), and automatic, which is intended for dentists in practice. In automatic mode, the dentist enters key clinical information, after which the system takes over and completes the design. Contravention of design rules is presented to the user in a critiquing style. The critiquing style strategies form the basis for the system's use in undergraduate and graduate dental education. Critiquing strategies used include: (1) a critique is issued only when the user has completed the proposed alteration; (2) a critique is issued immediately upon the user's radical misuse of a tool; (3) critiquing dynamically without negotiation with the user; (4) critiquing requested by the user upon completion of a design session, or at certain other stages in the design process; and (5) optional critiquing, requested by the user who wishes to compare his design with that which would have been produced independently by the system. An assessment of the educational effectiveness is planned. Expanding the range of design rules in RaPiD so that it becomes comprehensive is a current priority, as is the introduction of critiquing strategies (4) and (5), as well as completion of the automatic mode of operation. The extensive use and testing of RaPID, already carried out, show it to be a versatile and robust knowledge-based system.   | [FULL TEXT]

Flaxman, Erwin, Ed.; Passow, A. Harry, Ed. (1995).  Changing Populations, Changing Schools. Ninety-fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part II. 

The contributors to this yearbook attempt to explain the reasons for the poor fit between schools and poor, immigrant, linguistically different, and racial minority students. The problems that confront schools because of changing populations and increased diversity are discussed in the following chapters: (1) "The Old Problem of 'New Students': Purpose, Content, and Pedagogy" (W. Norton Grubb); (2) "Changing Students/Changing Needs" (Aaron M. Pallas, Gary Natriello, and Edward L. McDill); (3) "Nurturing Potential Talent in a Diverse Population" (A. Harry Passow); (4) "Normalizing Preschool Education: The Illusive Imperative" (Sharon L. Kagan); (5) "The Unfulfilled Mission of Federal Compensatory Education Programs" (Erwin Flaxman, Gary Burnett, and Carol Ascher); (6)"Second-Chance Programs for Youth" (Frederick Doolittle); (7) "Preparation for Work: The 'Forgotton' Student" (Erwin Flaxman and others); (8) "Curriculum Controversies in Multicultural Education" (Christine E. Sleeter); (9) "Creating Educational Opportunity for African Americans without Upsetting the Status Quo" (Robert Lowe and Harvey Kantor); (10) "Minority Schools on Purpose" (Charles L. Glenn); (11) "Families and Neighborhoods as Contexts for Education" (Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Jill Denner, and Pam Klebanov); and (12) "The Effectiveness of Collaborative School-Linked Services" (Margaret C. Wang, Geneva D. Haertel, and Herbert J. Walberg).

Fleener, M. Jayne; And Others (1995).  Learning Cycles for Mathematics: An Investigative Approach to Middle-School Mathematics.  Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 14, 4. 

Describes the components of, and theoretical/research bases for, learning cycle pedagogy, which is especially appropriate for the special needs of the middle-school student. Three stages of the learning cycle are exploration, conceptual invention, and expansion.

Fleener, M. Jayne; And Others (1995).  A Study of Preservice Teachers' Metaphors for the Different Roles of the Mathematics Teacher. 

This study examined 65 preservice teachers' metaphors for describing roles of the mathematics teacher. Previous research suggested that metaphors for teaching typically ascribe three distinct roles of the teacher: teaching, assessing, and classroom management. The findings of this study reveal that student metaphors were not systematic across the three roles. Actualizing visions of mathematics learning consistent with constructivist pedagogy will require teachers and pre-teachers to reconcile beliefs with personal interactions and roles in the classroom by engaging in critical reflection about teacher roles. Contains 10 references.  | [FULL TEXT]

Fleer, Marilyn, Ed. (1996).  Australian Research in Early Childhood Education. Volume 1, 1996.  [Journal for Australian Research in Early Childhood Education] 

This journal consists of selected refereed papers from the third Annual Conference of the Australian Research in Early Childhood Education (1995). Contained in the publication are the following articles: (1) "Longitudinal Studies--Are They Worth It?" (Judith Cowley); (2) "Scripts for Learning: Reflecting Dynamics of Classroom Life" (Joy Cullen, Alison St. George); (3) "Identifying Dilemmas for Early Childhood Educators" (Sue Dockett, Kim Tegel); (4) "Investigating Young Children's Home Technological Language and Experience" (Marilyn Fleer); (5) "How Do Early Childhood Teachers Support Young Children's Learning?" (Ruth F. Gardner); (6) "Possible Effects of Early Childhood Music on Mathematical Achievement" (Noel Geoghegan, Michael Mitchelmore); (7) "Beyond Mr. Bubbles: An Analysis of the Public Image of Early Childhood Care and Education in Western Sydney" (Jacqueline Hayden); (8) "Dads, Data and Discourse: Theory, Analysis and Interpretation in Parenting Research" (Annette Holland); (9) "Staff Supervision in Long Day Care Centres in New South Wales" (Karen Kearns); (10) "Quality Talk in Early Childhood Programs" (Laurie Makin); (11) "Ritual and Pedagogy: How One Teacher Uses Ritual in a Pre-Primary Classroom Setting" (Carmel Maloney); (12) "Young Children Who Experience Domestic Violence: An Important Issue for Early Childhood Teachers" (Jennifer Smith, and others); (13) "Publication Opportunities for Early Childhood Academics" (Jennifer Sumsion); and (14) "Arts Games for Young Children" (Louie Suthers, Veronicah Larkin). | [FULL TEXT]

Fleischer, Cathy, Ed.; Schaafsma, David, Ed. (1998).  Literacy and Democracy: Teacher Research and Composition Studies in Pursuit of Habitable Spaces. Further Conversations from the Students of Jay Robinson. 

This collection offers insights into what a democratic vision of literacy looks like in practice. Building on the work of teacher and literacy scholar Jay Robinson, the 10 essays in the collection explore the relationships between literacy and society. The essays pay tribute to Professor Robinson, who retired in 1966 from the University of Michigan's English and Education program. Following a foreword by Jacqueline Jones Royster and an introduction by Professor Robinson, his students, and the editors, the essays in the collection are: (1) "Literacy and Lived Lives: Reflections on the Responsibilities of Teachers" (Jay Robinson); (2) "Good Deeds: An Ethnographer's Reflections on Usefulness" (Todd DeStigter); (3) "Three Codifications of Critical Literacy" (Thomas Philion); (4) "Not a Luxury: Poetry and a Pedagogy of Possibility" (Laura Roop); (5) "Unsheltered Lives: Battered Women Talk about School" (Carol L. Winkelmann); (6) "Imagining Neighborhoods: Social Worlds of Urban Adolescents" (Colleen M. Fairbanks); (7) "Conflicting Interests: Critical Theory Inside Out" (Roberta J. Herter); (8) "Writing Back: The Research Writing of a Freshman College Composition Student" (Sylvia G. Robins); and (9) "Time, Talk, and the Interpretation of Texts in a Teacher Education Seminar" (John S. Lofty). | [FULL TEXT]

Flexer, Roberta J.; And Others (1995).  How "Messing About" with Performance Assessment in Mathematics Affects What Happens in Classrooms. 

This paper reviews a year's work with third-grade teachers who introduced performance assessments in the hope of improving both instruction and assessment in mathematics. The 14 participating teachers in 3 schools tried many changes in their educational and assessment practices. Patterns of stability and change that resulted from their efforts were examined, focusing in-depth on six teachers. The main finding was that the teachers indeed adopted many changes with respect to course content and pedagogy and assessment. Changes in assessment and instruction were mutually reinforcing for most of the teachers. By the end of the year, many were using more hands-on and problem-based activities that were closely aligned with the "Standards" of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. The introduction of performance assessment raised teachers' expectations of what their students could accomplish. Change resulted, not from what teachers were told to do, but from what they experienced as they attempted to change. An appendix provides examples of math tasks provided by the project. | [FULL TEXT]

Florin, Agnes (1998).  From Communication to Verbalization: Language Practices in Kindergarten.  European Journal of Psychology of Education, 13, 3. 

Discusses two questions in consideration of theoretical interactionist approaches and analyses of communication practices among kindergartners: (1) how are various socialization contexts different?; and (2) how do young children adapt to them? Presents a discussion on a pedagogy of oral language with young children.

Flowerdew, John (1990).  Problems of Speech Act Theory from an Applied Perspective.  Language Learning, 40, 1. 

Discusses the fundamental problems within speech act theory, focusing on the extent that these problems undermine attempts to apply speech act theory in the field of language pedagogy. (96 references)

Flowerdew, John; Miller, Lindsay (1997).  The Teaching of Academic Listening Comprehension and the Question of Authenticity.  English for Specific Purposes, 16, 1. 

Presents a range of insights that can be gained for English for Academic Purposes (EAP) listening comprehension pedagogy from the analysis of an authentic lecture. Notes that the salient features identified in the lecture are absent from academic listening textbooks surveyed and argues that EAP listening instructors need to supplement their texts by exposing their students to authentic lectures. (38 references)

Flynn, Philip (1993).  Literacy, Schooling, and Violence: Can Community Literacy Help? 

One result of the new culture of violence in the schools, and the corresponding shift in attention and resources away from learning activities and towards new security strategies, is the strong likelihood of a notable drop in student achievement levels. Fallout from the crisis in urban high schools carries over to community colleges and universities as these institutions inherit underprepared and underskilled students. Another kind of violence occurs on a more frequent and subtle basis--the relentless and systematic negation of the values, language, and practices of oppressed students in countless learning situations. As urban students experience school failure there is often a corresponding effect in the community. Providing opportunities for the students to confront their own powerlessness and to act of and for themselves in a community literacy project has the potential for negotiating a pedagogy of dialog and dignity in place of the pedagogy of insidious and subtle oppression that has been the main topic of the literature of literacy liberation for some time, most notably in Paulo Freire's "Pedagogy of the Oppressed." In the summer of 1991, eight teenagers from an inner-city high school in Pittsburgh began work on a project called HELP that involved the planning, design, and construction of an outdoor courtyard at a senior citizen's center in the community. Negotiating the four group goals was the key to the success of the project. Community-based projects can point educators towards an expanded and more inclusive view of what it means to be literate. (Lists of what the HELP team built and the group goals are attached.) | [FULL TEXT]

Foertsch, Julie (1995).  Where Cognitive Psychology Applies: How Theories about Memory and Transfer Can Influence Composition Pedagogy.  Written Communication, 12, 3. 

States that socially-oriented scholars think that context-specific writing skills that address the text's social milieu should be taught, whereas cognitively-inclined scholars think that models that can be adapted to a variety of writing contexts should be taught. Argues that synthesis is necessary to teach students to write in a variety of present and future contexts.

Foley, Joseph (1991).  Vygotsky, Bernstein and Halliday: Towards a Unified Theory of L1 and L2 Learning.  Language. 

Examines three perspectives on native and second language learning, attempting to integrate ideas from psychology, sociolinguistics, and linguistics into contemporary developments in language pedagogy and syllabus design, and giving special attention to such areas as socialization, self-regulation, and the role of school language programs. (95 references)

Fong, Margaret L. (1998).  Considerations of a Counseling Pedagogy.  Counselor Education and Supervision, 38, 2. 

This response to Nelson and Neufeldt (1998) and Granello and Hazler (1998) included in this issue discusses their reviews of the constructivist and developmental models in guiding counselor education. Models for diverse learners are suggested.

Fontaine, Sheryl I., Ed.; Hunter, Susan, Ed. (1993).  Writing Ourselves into the Story: Unheard Voices from Composition Studies. 

This book presents 23 essays, research studies, and personal narratives on topics that reflect the neglect and frustration experienced by the "silent majority" in the field of composition within academia. The essays and their authors are as follows: "Tosca Was a Woman" (Susan Pepper Robbins); "Invisible Diversity: Gay and Lesbian Students Writing Our Way into the Academy" (Sarah Sloane); "Freeway Flyers: The Migrant Workers of the Academy" (Frances Ruhlen McConnel); "Looking for a Gate in the Fence" (Clare A. Frost); "The Dangers of Teaching Differently" (Susan Hunter); "Hearing Our Own Voices: Life-saving Stories" (Lynn Z. Bloom); "The Fate of the Wyoming Resolution: A History of Professional Seduction" (Jeanne Gunner); "Composition Teaching as 'Women's Work': Daughters, Handmaids, Whores, and Mothers" (Cynthia Tuell); "Directing Without Power: Adventures in Constructing a Model of Feminist Writing Programs Administration" (Marcia Dickson); "Tales Too Terrible to Tell: Unstated Truths and Underpreparation in Graduate Composition Programs" (Michael A. Pemberton); "Seeking Aunt Beast: A Collage Essay" (Jean Fairgrieve); "Students' Stories and the Variable Gaze of Composition Research" (Wendy Bishop); "Student Voices: How Students Define Themselves as Writers" (Carol Lea Clark and Students of English 1803); "Privacy, Peers, and Process: Conflicts in the Composition Classroom" (Patricia Prandini Buckler, et al.); "Rites of Passage: Reflections on Disciplinary Enculturation in Composition" (Chris M. Anson); "Appearance as Shield: Reflections about Middle-Class Lives on the Boundary" (Irene Papoulis); "Writing in the Margins: A Search for Community College Voices" (Elizabeth A. Nist and Helon Howell Raines); "Resuscitating a Terminal Degree: A Reconceptualization of the M.A. in Composition" (Sheryl I. Fontaine); "Robert Zoellner's Talk-Write Pedagogy" (Gary Layne Hatch and Margaret Bennett Walters); "Gender in Composition Research: A Strange Silence" (Nancy Mellin McCracken, et al.); and "As We Share, We Move into the Light" (Penelope Dugan).

Ford, Bridgie Alexis, Ed. (1997).  Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse Exceptional Learners. 1997. 

This collection of articles focuses on the paradigms, research, policies, and daily school practices that tend either to reduce or perpetuate inequities in educational opportunities for culturally and linguistically diverse individuals with disabilities and/or gifts and talents. Articles in this issue include: (1) "Developing a Multicultural and Student-Centered Educational Environment for Students with Serious Emotional Disturbances" (Brian Kai Yung Tam and Ralph Gardner), which focuses on the use of a multicultural and student-centered pedagogy and curriculum for students with serious emotional disturbances, including strategies such as cooperative learning, peer tutoring, and "low-tech" strategies; (2) "Ethnic Minority Scholars Writing for Professional Publication: From Myths to Reality" (Fred Spooner, Bob Algozzine, Martha Thurlow, Festus E. Obiakor, and Bill Heller), which explores misconceptions about professional writing that detract from productivity, offers suggestions on how to make writing a part of a regularly scheduled activity, and provides perspectives from ethnic minority scholars; (3) "Success with a Student with Limited English Proficiency: One Teacher's Experience" (Whitney Hosmer Rapp), which describes the successful remedial activities that were used with a Vietnamese speaking fourth grader with a learning disability; (4) "Making Connections: Developing Strategies To Teach African-American Gifted Learners Effectively" (Joy L. Baytops and Dennis Reed), which discusses the diverse characteristics of African-American gifted learners and provides a rationale for designing specific institutional programs to meet their needs; and (5) "Understanding and Serving American Indian Children with Special Needs" (Helen Bessent Byrd), which presents an interview with three Native American professionals about critical educational issues and possible solutions to problems confronting Native American students. (Most articles contain references.) | [FULL TEXT]

Formo, Dawn M. (1994).  The Politics of Space in (Feminist) Composition Theory. 

The Romantic ivory-tower metaphor literally controls physical space in ways which undermine both composition's place on campuses and much of the pedagogy and theory it employs. Compositionists' academic office space tends to be located in the periphery campus buildings or in the basements of more geographically desirable buildings. Both the focus on writing "geniuses" and the gendered response to them may explain composition/rhetoric's physical position in the academy and the ongoing debate about the "feminization" of the field. Implementation of collaborative-process theory into the classroom resists the lofty, lonely voice that marks the Romantic writing ideology. Genius-focused and gendered Romantic ideology combined with the metaphors expressivist theory and pedagogy use to talk about what writing instructors do, keep the field in its place. (Seven notes are included.) | [FULL TEXT]

Foster, David (1995).  Rescuing Community: Sociality and Cohesion in Writing Groups. 

Group strategies--group discussion, feedback, collaboration--seem so widely used in postsecondary writing as to have attained the status of lore. In seeking pedagogical community, writing teachers too often gloss over or deny the reality of competing voices. To understand the traditional appeal of the trope "community" for American educational institutions, it must be noted how tightly, in forming the trope, the ideology of democracy is yoked to the belief in cohesion through education. Historical studies of national literacy movements have amply shown that universal schooling is the most important underlying mechanism by which modern societies seek to create social cohesion. However, because discourse is power, membership in a discourse community confers power and privilege. Some are included, some are left out, unvoiced and disempowered. One of postmodernism's clearest tenets is the power of discourse to enact hegemony, to insist upon acquiescence to the dominant discourses of a culture and to exclude voices that are different or other. Various efforts have been made to rescue the idea of community in the classroom in a postmodern age, most notably by Kenneth Bruffee and David Bleich. Also, feminists such as Carol Gilligan and Mary Belenky, similarly, have suggested dialogic pedagogy of collaboration intended as an alternative to a more oppositional, argumentative model. However, these theorists do not adequately discuss the sources and nature of the cohesion that could keep classroom groups functioning while preserving diversity. This is a fundamental question that theorists must address--how can students in a pluralistic classroom be motivated to form a cohesive whole? | [FULL TEXT]

Foster, Michele (1995).  African American Teachers and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy. 

An overview is presented of research on African American teachers, addressing the large body of literature written by policy analysts, first-person narratives, and the sociological and anthropological literature. Policy research has identified the small number of African American teachers and has studied some reasons for this shortage and some of the programs designed to combat it. First-person narratives have provided sensitive portraits of African American teachers and their influence. The sociological and anthropological literature on African American teachers is small, compared to the entire body of studies on teachers, and frequently portrays them in a negative light. Nevertheless, some research exists that indicates that the pedagogy of effective African American teachers is characterized by cultural solidarity, affiliation, and connectedness with the African American community. The meager volume of literature means that many questions about the effectiveness of African American teachers remain to be resolved.

Foster, Michele, Ed. (1991).  Qualitative Investigations into Schools and Schooling. Volume 11, Readings on Equal Education. 

Qualitative approaches in educational research are challenging traditional postivistic, psychometric paradigms by emphasizing: (1) close contact over detachment; (2) multiple techniques in obtaining data; (3) bottom-up inductive frameworks; and (4) phenomenological approaches. Section 1, "Ethnographic Investigations into High Schools," includes "Dynamics of a Multiethnic School" (Maryann Semons) and "What Can Traditional High School Dropouts Tell Us about Alternative Education" (Daniel Kaczynski). Section 2, "Understanding and Creating Effective Schools," includes "A Systems Approach to School Reform" (Norman Newberg) and "Exceeding Expectations: Activities and Attitudes in an Inner City School with Large Achievement Gains" (John Crawford and Lola Agaard). Section 3, "Technology, Science and Mathematics for Underrepresented Populations" includes "Technology and Mainstreamed Students with Physical Disabilities" (Marcia Scherer). Section 4, "Achievement and Cultural Identity," includes "Breaking the Silence: Race and the Educational Experiences of Asian-American College Students" (Keith Osajima) and "Defining and Managing Stress in Pluralistic Communities" (Jerri Willet). Section 5, "Literacy at Home and School," includes "Ho-oulu I Ka Heluhelu: Fitting Book Reading into the Lives of Hawaiian Children" (Alice Kawakami); "Parental Involvement in Mainstream Schools" (Patricia Edwards and Georgia Garcia); and "Gaining and Retaining Access to Literacy in African-American Youth and Children" (Vivian Gadsden). Section 6, "Effective Teachers and Pedagogy for African-American Students," includes "Cultural Politics in Teacher Education" (Peter Murrell); "Returning to the Source: Implications for Educating Teachers Black Students" (Gloria Ladson-Billings); "Unfinished Business: Black Students' Alienation and Black Teacher's Pedagogy" (Joyce King); and "'Just Got to Find a Way': Case Studies of the Lives and Practice of Exemplary Black High School Teachers" (Michele Foster). Each chapter includes multiple references.

Fouhey, Helen; Saltmarsh, John (1996).  Outward Bound and Community Service Learning: An Experiment in Connected Knowing.  Journal of Experiential Education, 19, 2. 

A collaboration between Outward Bound and Northeastern University allows a diverse group of 6-10 college students to participate in a community service learning project. Describes how the collaboration emphasizes "connected knowing," (the collective construction of knowledge) and reflective inquiry to increase the relevance of the traditionally wilderness-oriented Outward Bound program to urban environments.

Fowler, Frances C.; Poetter, Thomas S. (1999).  Framing French Success in Elementary Mathematics Curriculum and Pedagogy: Implications for American Educators. 

A study provides a deeper understanding of teaching elementary mathematics in France. France performed creditably in mathematics on both the Second International Mathematics Study (SIMS) and the Third International Math and Science Study (TIMSS). In analyzing the French approach to teaching elementary mathematics, three theoretical frames are used: sociocultural, official policy, and classroom practice. Five questions, developed by Stigler and Hiebert (1997), were employed to provide a theoretical framework for describing French classroom instruction. Basil Bernstein's "Class and Pedagogies: Visible and Invisible," which identifies a visible pedagogy (VP) characterized by strong "classification" and strong "framing," also was used. Data were analyzed by coding them in terms of the major concepts in Stigler and Hiebert. The formal curriculum in France is not a static entity but one whose potential lies in wait of the interpretation of practitioners, students, practice, and experience. Mathematics is strongly classified and tends toward reflecting a VP. Problem solving plays a central role in the French conceptions of teaching and learning mathematics in school. Findings suggest that French success on international mathematics tests cannot be understood as resulting from the sorts of policies that U.S. politicians recommend in the wake of publicity about U.S. scores on international comparisons. The French do not use a skill and drill approach and have no high stakes mathematics examinations during elementary school. Four probable reasons for their success are: (1) use of a constructivist approach in teaching mathematics; (2) use of instructional methods that are less disadvantageous for poor and minority children; (3) skillful use of formative assessment to guide teaching; and (4) teacher recruitment and selection processes which guarantee that knowledgeable professionals teach elementary mathematics. Contains a table and 28 references. | [FULL TEXT]

Fowler, John (1999).  Art from the Universe Story: New Meaning for the Child.  NAMTA Journal, 24, 3. 

Discusses the connections between Montessori pedagogy and Brian Swimme's ideas of a human authorship of a connection with the evolution of the universe and a need to reestablish a connection with the natural world. Describes the ways the art of 11- and 12-year-old students demonstrates an awareness of these issues and a connection with the natural world.

Fowler, Shelli B. (1998).  "Mass Dialogue" Turned Mass Requiem: A "Democratic" Discourse Reconsidered. 

This paper tells the story of a pedagogy conference keynote event that is both specific and individual as well as emblematic of the difficulties that individuals face as academics and teachers. The paper explores the problematic relationship between power and responsibility, between privilege and accountability--issues that teachers are always wrestling with in their classrooms, in their scholarship, and in their daily lives. The paper's background is the 1997 "Pedagogy of the Oppressed" Conference in Omaha, Nebraska, which a large and diverse group of academics, community activists, graduate and undergraduate student activists, and theater activists from across the nation attended. According to the paper, at one of the mass dialogue events the keynote speaker "lectured" the attendees about the usefulness of dialogue and about how to do a mass dialogue, while referring to the "keynote lecture format" as an academic "press conference," thereby agitating much of the 400-member audience. Afterward, the paper states, the speaker called on some people for questions and comments and ignored others, thus directing and controlling the dialogue--what was supposed to be a mass dialogue, an interactive, dialogic, and democratic event, turned into an anti-democratic, authoritarian exercise in containing, and ultimately silencing the angry voices of the diverse (and mainly marginalized) audience members. The paper suggests that all who consider themselves progressive educators can learn from this story; academics should be self-reflexive to continually engage in the critical analysis of personal inconsistencies and to change personal actions. | [FULL TEXT]

Fraizer, Dan (1993).  Textbooks and Writing in the 1990s: The Commodification of Process and What Teachers and Students Can Do about It.  Writing Instructor, 12, 3. 

Examines a range of writing textbooks. Finds that many composition textbooks trivialize or misrepresent writing as process and process pedagogy. Outlines how composition theory becomes commodified. Calls for a radical revision of textbooks, including teachers helping students create their own texts.

Fraser, Deborah (1999).  "They Keep Asking Questions and Want To Know More": Enhancing Students' (and Teachers') Learning through Curriculum Integration. 

As a pedagogy, curriculum integration has global and local significance, as the central focus in teaching this way is to enhance students' learning through the vehicle of personal concerns and social issues. These issues and concerns form the basis of a negotiated curriculum of direct relevance to the sociocultural world of young people in diverse settings. The challenge for research in curriculum integration is to investigate the learning process as it unfolds in all its complexity, and the role of the teacher in both scaffolding and promoting students' intellectual, social, and emotional growth. Teachers' professional development in curriculum integration is, therefore, crucial and includes a number of issues, such as: teachers need to recognize and understand the complexity of learning, both their own learning and the learning of children; teachers need to critique their own practice to bridge the gap between rhetoric and reality; and teachers need to make a commitment to power sharing when making curriculum decisions with students.   | [FULL TEXT]

Fredericksen, Elaine (1996).  Personal Authority and the Female Writer. 

Composition teachers and researchers recognize the difficulty young writers, especially females, face as they enter postsecondary education and attempt to learn the language of the academy. Addressing academic audiences "takes confidence and authority, qualities that are often challenged in women because of their historical exclusion from and marginal status within academic institutions" (G. Kirsch, 1993). Feminists often describe expressive writing as "personal" or "private" and academic writing as "public" at the same time they resist the dichotomy this description implies. An instructor conducted a series of freshman composition classes in which combining the methodology of composition studies and feminist theory was attempted. As students wrote, she looked at their responses to assignments and noted that some made the transition from personal to public more easily than others. A writing assignment can help students merge the personal and the academic by implementing exploratory in-class writing, research, peer collaboration, teacher-student conferencing, and revision. Students first write in class about their college experience, then read an article about the freshman year, discuss the article in class, and incorporate the material in their essays or look for additional material in the library. Essays are revised in successive drafts, going through peer collaboration, an individual conference with the teacher, and a final revision for a grade. | [FULL TEXT]

Frederickson, H. George (1999).  Dwight Waldo and Education for Public Administration.  Journal of Public Affairs Education, 5, 1. 

Examines the contributions of Dwight Waldo to public administration, including his impact on pedagogy, use of the case method, his appreciation for art and the administrative "novel" in teaching, his views on appropriate elements of the public administration curriculum, and the relationship of public administration to political science.

Freedman, David (1996).  Teaching Anti-militarism during War.  Theory into Practice, 35, 2. 

Article discusses various issues of a situated pedagogical practice by examining one teacher's experiences teaching during the U.S.-Iraq war. His course highlighted ways that cultural constructions of oppressive discourses enabled a plunge into war, looking at how and why context-specific interventions against oppression were considered and taught.

Freeman, Donald (1991).  Language Teacher Education, Emerging Discourse, and Change in Classroom Practice. 

A discussion of teacher education for second-language teachers argues that this training has generally been based on two misguided premises: that teaching is the execution of activity in classrooms; and that it involves shaping that activity to reflect some broadly held perceptions of effective classroom pedagogy. Two alternatives are proposed: that teaching involves both thinking and doing; and that the effects of teacher education lie less in influencing how teachers behave than in recasting how they think about what they do in classrooms. The discussion integrates two elements: an 18-month research project on the influences of teacher education on teachers' understandings of their teaching; and a conceptual argument that extends those findings to raise larger questions about the nature and processes of second language teacher education. It is organized around six statements that build an argument for a different view of teacher education, one based on the conceptualization of socialization into professional discourse. (38 references)

Freeman, Donald; Johnson, Karen E. (1998).  Reconceptualizing the Knowledge-Base of Language Teacher Education.  TESOL Quarterly, 32, 3. 

Recommends reconceptualizing the knowledge base of English as a Second Language teacher education, arguing that its core must emphasize the activity of teaching itself, teachers who teach, contexts in which teaching occur, and pedagogy involved. The knowledge base must understand teachers as learners of teaching, social contexts of schools and schooling, and activities of language teaching and learning.

Freeman, Eric (1999).  Community as Incentive in the Formation of Charter Schools. 

This paper is based on a study of four newly created charter schools in North Carolina. It explores the purpose and values that prompted and guided the initial formation of these schools. It opens with a review of the conflicting claims and ambivalent purposes that characterize the policy environment as it pertains to charter-school reform. This overview is followed by an examination of the challenges such schools face in remaining faithful to democratic ideals. For the study, two founders, the principal, and four teachers were observed and interviewed in each of the four schools to learn what they brought into these alternative learning environments in the way of knowledge, beliefs, experiences, and dispositions. The article describes the three dimensions of the schools that proved central to their establishing a distinctive community identity: social vision, inclusive leadership, and congruent pedagogy. The findings contradict the popular perception of charter schools as normatively coherent learning communities whose members are unified around a set of implicitly shared values and goals. The paper concludes that reductionist notions of charter unity ignore the harder truth that achieving authentic community schools entails much more than filtering out potentially dissonant elements. | [FULL TEXT]

Freidus, Helen (1996).  Portfolios: A Pedagogy of Possibility in Teacher Education. 

The motivation to explore the use of portfolios in the Bank Street College (New York) program of teacher education emerged in response to a range of serious concerns about how the program met the needs of today's teacher and classrooms. The portfolio process as implemented at Bank Street is designed to be learner centered. It asks students to: (1) identify and discuss the artifacts that they find most significant in their personal and professional development; (2) identify connections between and among artifacts; (3) reflect upon these connections in order to identify a unifying theme; (4) examine artifacts and themes from both personal and theoretical perspectives; and (5) participate in public presentations of the portfolio. The completed portfolio includes artifacts such as audio tapes, videotapes, picture collages, and various writing genres; one- or two-page captions to accompany each artifact; and an introductory framing statement. The work of each student is supported by individual meetings between students and faculty portfolio mentors and a series of required monthly meetings that provide opportunities for peer mentoring. Data for a study of the process were gathered from 47 Master's degree students who chose to take part in a pilot project using portfolios as a culminating project. Study findings support the assumption that portfolios have the potential to be a generative and transformative pedagogical tool, involving students in the process of setting and meeting goals that bridge personal and professional funds of knowledge. The data also suggest, however, that constraints to achieving this potential emerge from the prior experiences of both faculty and students, the structures of institutions of learning, and the pervasive influence of a traditional authority relationship. | [FULL TEXT]

Freidus, Helen (1997).  The Telling of Story: Teachers Knowing What They Know. 

This case study documents one graduate student's reflections on her personal and professional development as a teacher as part of a portfolio project. Her story describes how she has blended a teaching philosophy that combines the traditional pedagogy of her own early education with her subsequent experiences as a student and as a teacher using non-traditional approaches. She reflects on the traditional conserving influences that have shaped her existence and the role they play in a sense of security and connection to the dominant culture. The use of portfolio evaluation enabled her to view her less traditionally-constructed curricula in a positive way, having previously judged it only against traditional standards. Through reflection, she was able to discover the self-validity in a progressive approach. The telling of story is used in this case to document professional knowledge and the value of the portfolio as a tool for reflection. | [FULL TEXT]

Freire, Ana Maria Araujo, Ed.; Macedo, Donaldo, Ed. (1998).  The Paulo Freire Reader. 

This book analyzes the work of Paulo Freire and discusses Freire's work with adult literacy education and educational improvement. The book is divided into eight major sections, each containing one or more chapters or sections discussing Freire's works, as follows: Section 1, "Pedagogy of the Oppressed," includes "The Fear of Freedom" and "The 'Banking' Concept of Education." Section 2, "Education for Critical Consciousness," discusses Freire's "Education and Conscientizacao." Section 3, "Pedagogy in Process," provides an introduction to pedagogy in process. Section 4, "Literacy: Reading the Word and the World," contains "Literacy in Guinea-Bissau Revisited." Section 5, "Learning to Question: A Pedagogy of Liberation," emphasizes "Learning to Question." Section 6, "Pedagogy of the City," examines "The Challenges of Urban Education." Section 7, "Pedagogy of Hope: Reliving Pedagogy of the Oppressed," presents "A Further 'Reading of the World.'" Section 8, "Pedagogy of the Heart," includes "The Limit of the Right,""Neoliberals and Progressives," and "The 'Lefts' and the Right."

Freire, Paulo (1996).  Letters to Cristina. Reflections on My Life and Work. 

This book offers Paulo Freire's retrospection on his life and work. These reflections, conceived in the form of 18 letters to his niece, Cristina, provide a backdrop for a deeper understanding of the experiences--including his exile---that have informed his thinking and teaching. The first 10 letters look back on Freire's childhood and youth. The 11th letter focuses on his 10 years at the Social Service of Industry (SESI), Regional Department of Pernambuco, Brazil, where Freire was involved in the most important political-pedagogical practice of his life and where he learned how to deal with the relationship between practice and theory. The 12th letter discusses some defining moments: Freire's involvement with the Movement for Popular Culture, Cultural Extension Service at the Federal University of Pernambuco, and adult literacy in Angicos, Rio Grande de Norte. The 13th letter is a transition between letters about personal experiences and letters that respond to contemporary challenges to his work. The last four letters discuss these topics: relationships between education and democracy; liberation and freedom; advising those writing graduate theses and doctoral dissertations; concerns about domination; and current educational and political debates. Notes by Ana Maria Araujo Freire and an index are appended.

Freire, Paulo (1998).  Teachers as Cultural Workers. Letters to Those Who Dare Teach. The Edge: Critical Studies in Educational Theory. 

The essays in this collection, presented as letters to teachers, reaffirm Paulo Freire's place as the most significant educator in the world during the last half of the 20th century. As North America experiences a rapid change to conditions approximating those of the Third World, Freire's pedagogy becomes more important, not only for his methods of reading instruction but for the ways in which they can develop students' ability to be aware of themselves in the world and in their cultures. Freire states that his intention is to demonstrate that the task of the teachers, who are also learners, is both joyful and rigorous. This task demands seriousness and scientific, physical, emotional, and affective preparation. It also demands the evaluation of practice and the reform of teacher education. Teachers must act as teachers and not as coddling parents. The following "Letters" are included: (1) "First Words: A Pedagogical Trap"; (2) "First Letter: Reading the World/ Reading the Word"; (3) "Second Letter: Don't Let the Fear of What Is Difficult Paralyze You"; (4) "Third Letter: I Came into the Teacher Training Program because I Had No Other Option"; (5) "Fourth Letter: On the Indispensable Qualities of Progressive Teachers for Their Better Performance"; (6) "Fifth Letter: The First Day of School"; (7) "Sixth Letter: On the Relationship between the Educator and Learners"; (8) "Seventh Letter: From Talking to Learners to Talking to Them and with Them: From Listening to Learners to Being Heard by Them"; (9) "Eighth Letter: Cultural Identity and Education"; (10) "Ninth Letter: Concrete Context/Theoretical Context"; (11) "Tenth Letter: Once More the Question of Discipline"; and (12) "Last Words: To Know and To Grow--Everything Yet To See."

Freire, Paulo (1998).  Pedagogy of Freedom. Ethics, Democracy, and Civic Courage. 

This translation of Paulo Friere's last book is a utopian text that suggests that, among other things, education is a specifically human act of intervening in the world. Chapter 1 presents introductory reflections. Chapter 2, There Is No Teaching without Learning, includes a discussion of Methodological Rigor; Research; Respect for What Students Know; A Capacity To be Critical; Ethics and Aesthetics; Words Incarnated in Example; Risk, Acceptance of What Is New, and Rejection of Discrimination; Critical Reflection on Practice; and Cultural Identity. Chapter 3, Teaching Is Not Just Transferring Knowledge, discusses Awareness of Our Unfinishedness; Recognition of One's Conditioning; Respect for the Autonomy of the Student; Common Sense; Humility, Tolerance, and the Struggle for the Rights of Educators; Capacity To Apprehend Reality; Joy and Hope; Conviction That Change Is Possible; and Teaching Requires Curiosity. Chapter 4, Teaching Is a Human Act, focuses on Self-Confidence, Professional Competence, and Generosity; Commitment; Education as a Form of Intervention in the World; Freedom and Authority; Decision Making That Is Aware and Conscientious; Knowing How To Listen; Education Is Ideological; Openness to Dialogue; and Caring for the Students.

Freire, Paulo; Macedo, Donaldo P. (1995).  A Dialogue: Culture, Language, and Race.  Harvard Educational Review, 65, 3. 

A dialogue between Paulo Freire and Donaldo Macedo addresses current criticisms of Freire along gender and race lines, challenges misinterpretations of his ideas, and discusses what it means to educate for critical citizenry in a multiracial and multicultural world.

French, Robert, Ed.; Grey, Christopher, Ed. (1996).  Rethinking Management Education. 

This book brings together the work of practitioners actively engaged in developing new approaches to management education, and their application. The 10 chapters are: Chapter 1, "Rethinking Management Education: An Introduction" (Christopher Grey and Robert French); chapter 2, "Can Management Education be Educational?" (Alan B. Thomjas and Peter D. Anthony); chapter 3, "Mapping the Intellectual Terrain of Management Education" (Jannis Kallinikos); chapter 4, "Management Education and the Limits of Technical Rationality: The Conditions and Consequences of Management Practice" (John Roberts); chapter 5, "Critical Theory and Management Education: Some Strategies for the Critical Classroom" (J. Michael Cavanaugh and Anshuman Prasad); chapter 6, "Is a Critical Pedagogy of Management Possible?" (Christopher Grey, David Knights and Hugh Willmott); chapter 7, "Experiential Management Education as the Practice of Change" (Russ Vince); chapter 8, "The MBA: The Potential fur Students to find their Voice in Babel" (Audrey Collin); chapter 9, "Plato on the Education of Managers" (Jonathan Gosling); and chapter 10, "Management Education as a Panoptic Cage" (Davis M. Boje). A name index and a subject index are included.

Friedenthal-Haase, Martha, Ed. (1998).  Personality and Biography: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on the History of Adult Education. Volume I: General, Comparative, and Synthetic Studies. 

This volume includes the following papers: "Foreword: The Standing International Conference on the History of Adult Education (AE)" (Franz Poeggeler); "Editor's Introduction: Perspectives on the Sixth International Conference on the History of AE" (Martha Friedenthal-Haase); two special addresses by Joerg Prinzhausen and Ursula Giere; "History of AE as History of Adult Educators" (Poeggeler); "Status of Biographical History and Career Research in International AE" (Wijetunga); "Aspects of Western European AE" (Lengrand); "Some Problems of Biographical Writing in AE" (Thomas); "Volksbildung auf der Schwelle zum 21. Jahrhundert [Popular Education on the Threshold of the 21st Century]" (Rovan); "Personality and Biography: Dimensions of Educational Psychology" (Brunner);"Biographische Erfahrungen und Weiterbildungsbereitschaft [Biographical Experiences and Readiness to Undertake Further Education]" (Prokop, Schroll-Decker); "Educational Processes in the Biographies of Women in Rural Areas" (Kaschuba); "Konstellationen frueher Erwachsenenbildungsforschung in Deutschland [Constellations of Early German AE Research]" (Broedel); "Can Women Be Placed at the Heart of AE and Its History?" (Benn); "Historische und gegenwaertige Typen von Erwachsenenbildnern in Ungarn [Hungarian Adult Educationalists: Some Historical and Contemporary Categories]" (Petho); "Fachgruppen [Specialist Groups]" (Filla); "Hagiographies in Medieval Serbian Education of Adults" (Popovic); "Vocational Adult Training in East Germany after 1989" (Dewe, Meister); "Handing over Knowledge or Fostering Education?" (Maroti); "Probleme der Neuorientierung [Problems of Reorientation]" (Pugachev); "Jena--An Innovative Center of AE" (Meilhammer); "Wilhelm Rein, Founding Father of AE at the University of Jena" (Vogel); "Originality and Practicality of the Adult Educational Theories of Dr. Jure Turic, Croatian Graduate of the University of Jena (1892)" (Klapan, Lavrnja); "Meine Lehrzeit in der Erwachsenenbildung ['My Apprenticeship in AE']" (Kessler); "Zur existentiellen Dimension der Erwachsenenbildung in der ehemaligen DDR [On the Existential Dimension of AE in the Former East Germany]" (Rothe); "Bedeutung und Funktion von Weiterbildungsprozessen fur die Gestaltung von Lebenslaeufen [The Significance and Function of Further Education Processes in the Shaping of Careers]" (Schaefer); "Biography as Paradigm" (Alheit); "Das Archiv fuer Erwachsenenbildung in Niedersachsen [The Archive for AE in Lower Saxony]" (Gierke); "Historische Bildungsforschung mit neuen Medien in Jena [Jena-based Research into Educational History using Modern Media]" (Friedrich); and "Reactivating the Past" (Poeggeler).

Friedman, Debra A. (1999).  Teasing as Pedagogy in a Russian as a Foreign Language Class. 

A study investigated the use of teasing as a teaching technique in a first-year college-level Russian class at a major university in California. The instructor is a native Russian speaker, and the class consisted of nine undergraduate students. A review of literature on teasing reveals its dual nature for conveying both a literal message of insult and a "metamessage" of playfulness. It was found that in this classroom context, teasing was used as a strategy for error correction, but only for pragmatic errors, not grammar or pronunciation. Six segments in which the teacher teases one or more students in order to make a pragmatic point are examined, and a structure is identified in the sequences: a problem (an utterance whose pragmatic form or message content is problematic); corrective teacher feedback; the target response to the feedback; audience response; and follow-up. It is concluded that, as playful enactments of serious activities, the teasing sequences described here offer an ideal space for language socialization. Through participation in them, students are engaged in naturalistic interactions in the target language that require them to attend not only to grammatical form, but also to the social and affective dimensions of language. | [FULL TEXT]

Friedman, Ellen G.; And Others (1996).  Creating an Inclusive College Curriculum: A Teaching Sourcebook from the New Jersey Project. Athene Series. 

This book includes a selection of essays, narratives, and syllabi from the New Jersey Project, which, since 1986, has been pioneering the statewide transformation of the college curriculum away from the androcentric and Eurocentric canon toward an inclusive, nonsexist, nonracist, and multicultural curriculum. Part 1 describes the genesis and development of the New Jersey Project, the institutionalization of reform from the points of view of administrators and faculty at two- and four-year colleges, and techniques to overcome faculty and institutional resistance. Part 2 contains theoretical and practical essays that focus on issues of pedagogy, ranging from chapters on interrogating the posture of objectivity in academia to others on transformation in specific disciplines and fields, including general education. Part 3 contains syllabi and instructors' accompanying narratives for 32 courses, ranging from English composition, business, law, education, nursing, and science to teaching lesbian and gay perspectives. An appendix lists the New Jersey Project staff, participants, and participating institutions. Most chapters contain reference lists.

Friend, Christy (1999).  Resisting Virtue: Rhetoric, Writing Pedagogy, and Popular Moral Discourse.  Composition Forum, 10, 1. 

Discusses how nearly everyone who talks about morality assumes that it is closely linked to language and especially to public discourse. Suggests that teachers of rhetoric and writing courses must develop models that help students resist naive prescriptions and meet the challenges involved in voicing their views responsibly in a diverse and technologically complex society.

Fritzell, Christer (1996).  Pedagogical Split Vision.  Educational Theory, 46, 2. 

This educational perspective views the individual, society, and knowledge as a tripartite structure making up a whole. Suggests that there are two kinds of theoretical and methodological perspectives of major concern to pedagogy and recommends accepting the situation and recognizing the complementarity of the two outlooks.

Fry, Pamela G.; McKinney, Linda J. (1997).  A Qualitative Study of Preservice Teachers' Early Field Experiences in an Urban, Culturally Different School.  Urban Education, 32, 2. 

Studied the field teaching experiences of 10 white female preservice teachers in an urban, culturally different school, focusing on attitudes, pedagogy, career expectations, and sense of preparedness. Findings show the positive effects of the field experience on teacher cultural awareness and sense of preparedness to teach.

Frykholm, Jeffrey (1999).  Elementary Mathematics: A Missing Piece in Secondary Mathematics Teacher Education? 

For learners to develop powerful conceptions of mathematics, they must have opportunities to experience mathematics--to make conjectures, explore mathematical relationships, justify claims, engage in mathematical communication, and connect concepts within and outside of mathematics. If learners are to experience mathematics in this way, significant implications for teachers, the preparation of beginning teachers in particular, will follow. This paper explores several of these implications as they relate specifically to the content knowledge that prospective mathematics teachers bring to the preparation process. Moreover, it examines a model for mathematics teacher education that provides beginning teachers an opportunity to grapple with the relationships between their own mathematical knowledge and conceptually-based teaching. Following a review of the literature, the paper presents a case study of a mathematics major who had returned to graduate school for secondary teaching licensure. The intent is to use the student's experiences as a springboard for discussions about the potential impact that elementary mathematics content and pedagogy might have on beginning secondary teachers. Contains 21 references. | [FULL TEXT]

Fucaloro, Liliane; Russikoff, Karen (1998).  Assessing a Virtual Course: Development of a Model. 

A study was undertaken to develop and pilot an assessment model for an on-line, college-level, French civilization course. The model was applied to examine the effects of this instructional mode on teaching and learning, noting opportunities for faculty-student contact, speed and type of feedback, time on task, and concerns with learning styles. Characteristics of student participants were also analyzed to determine degrees of technological skills required, preferences concerning structured environment, and active learning initiative. In addition, the model was used to assess the demands on faculty in terms of workload, technological ability, and reflective teaching. Multiple measures were used to assess the model's utility; those findings are examined and implications for pedagogy, curriculum, and future research are discussed. Contains two references. | [FULL TEXT]

Fujikawa, Nobuo (1997).  Der Begriff des "Ki" und die japanische Padagogik: Uber Konflikte zwischen westlicher und japanischer Padagogik (The Concept of "Ki" and Japanese Pedagogy: On Conflicts between Western and Japanese Pedagogics).  Zeitschrift fur Padagogik, 43, 3. 

Sketches the characteristics of the Japanese educational tradition and analyzes conflicts between modern western pedagogies and traditional education. Argues that Japanese socialization processes stress a specifically Japanese construction of the "self" and of behavior. Concludes that Japanese educators should be more aware of this element in the country's educational tradition.

Fujimura-Fanselow, K. (1996).  Women's Studies and Feminist Pedagogy: Critical Challenges to Japanese Educational Values and Practices.  Gender and Education, 8, 3. 

Some insights and reflections based on experiences in trying to implement some feminist pedagogical principles and practices in women's studies courses in Japan are presented. Data from roughly 1,500 students reveal the difficulties in such teaching and the potential for change in Japanese education.

Fuller, Bruce; And Others (1994).  When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana.  Comparative Education Review, 38, 3. 

A longitudinal study of academic achievement among 4,968 secondary students in Botswana found time in school to be the best predictor of achievement. Findings also suggest that supplementary reading materials, inservice training, and selected teaching practices may be boosting mean achievement and may help explain variation among pupils. Highlights variables associated with differences in female achievement.

Fuller, Bruce; Clarke, Prema (1994).  Raising School Effects while Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy.  Review of Educational Research, 64, 1. 

How educators define and study school effectiveness is shaped by "policy mechanics" who attempt to define inputs that raise student achievement and by classroom culturalists who focus on implicitly modeled norms in the classroom. This article reviews how these two paths are informed by research in developing countries.

_____. (1990).  Further Education and Training of the Labour Force. Country Report: Sweden 

Education is the strategic instrument for the overriding aim of Sweden's economic policy--full employment. The fundamental idea of the Swedish school system is to include all citizens. Youth education is intended to take the form of comprehensive, integrated schooling with no dead ends. Adult education occupies a strong position by international standards. Adult and continuing education in Sweden is still an expanding enterprise. Types of formal education are municipal and national education, adult basic education, municipal adult education, and distance education. Popular adult education includes folk high schools and study circles. Other providers of adult education are public and private employers, trade unions, and education enterprises. The national system makes available financial study assistance. Employees have been entitled by law to educational leave since 1975. Various factors influence adult participation: societal determinants, such as the structure and distribution of prior education of the work force; provision of learning options throughout the country; admission requirements; institutional and individual barriers to learning; and the development of an efficient adult pedagogy. The 1980s were characterized by an increasing market orientation and privatization. The educational future of a learning society presents a number of fields and problems with a growing need for more knowledge and information. (42 references)

Furinghetti, Fulvia, Ed. (1991).  Proceedings of the Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (PME) (15th, Assisi, Italy, June 29-July 4, 1991), Volume 3. 

Research reports from the annual conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education include: "La construcion algorithmique: niveaux ou stades?" (Mesquita); "For Establishing the Generality of Conjectures" (Miyazaki); "Teachers' Attitudes Towards Mathematics and Mathematics Teaching: Perspectives across Two Countries" (Moreira); "World Problems--the Construction of Multiplicative Structures" (Morgado); "Reconstruction of Mathematics Education: Teachers' Perceptions of and Attitudes to Change" (Mousley); "The Falsifiability Criterion and Refutation by Mathematical Induction" (Movshovitz-Hadar); "Young Children's Division Strategies" (Murray; Olivier; Human); "'It Makes Sense if You Think about How the Graphs Work. But in Reality...'" (Nemirovsky; Rubin); "Two-Step Problems--Research Findings" (Nesher; Hershkovitz); "Early Conceptions of Division. A Phenomenographic Approach" (Neuman); "Can Epistemological Pluralism make Mathematics Education More Inclusive?" (Neville); "The Pupil as Teacher: Analysis of Peer Discussions, in Mathematics Classes, between 12-Year-old Pupils and the Effects of Their Learning" (Newman; Pirie); "Teacher Attitudes and Interactions in Computational Environments" (Noss; Hoyles); "Children's Understanding of Measurement" (Nunes; Light; Mason); "A 3-Dimension Conceptual Space of Transformations for the Study of Intuition of Infinity in Plane Geometry" (Nunez); "The Status of Children's Construction of Relationships" (O'Brien); "Intra-Individual Differences in Fractions Arithmetic" (Ohlsson; Bee);"Construction of Procedures for Solving Multiplicative Problems" (Orozco; Hormaza); "Transfer in Learning 3D Reference System: From Interaction "Pupils as Expert System Developers" (Osta); "Levels of Knowledge about Signed Numbers: Effects of Age and Ability" (Peled); "Representations du probleme de mathematiques chez des enfants de 7 a 10 ans" (Perrin-Glorian); "Teaching as Meta-Communication" (Pimm); "Folding Back: Dynamics in the Growth of Mathematical Understanding" (Pire; Kieren); "Enseigner les mathematiques en premiere annee secondaire apres l'evaluation nationale francaise" (Pluvinage; Rauscher; Dupuis); "Etude des modeles implicites mis en ouvre par les enfants lors de la resolution de problemes complexes mettant en jeu une reconstruction d'une transformation arithmetique" (Poirier; Bednarz); "Classroom Aspects which Influence Use of Visual Imagery in High School Mathematics" (Presmeg); "Computer Activities in Mathematical Problem Solving with 11-14 Years Old Students: the Conditional Structure Learning" (Reggiani); "Symbolising and Solving Algebra Word Problems: the Potential of a Spreadsheet Environment" (Rojano; Sutherland); "Damien: a Case Study of a Reorganization of His Number Sequence to Generate Fractional Schemes" (Saenz-Ludlow); "The Use of Language in the Context of School Mathematics" (Sakonidis; Bliss); "Emergent Goals in Everyday Practices: Studies in Children's Mathematics" (Saxe); "Teachers' and Students' Beliefs and Opinions about the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics in Grade 4 in British Columbia" (Schroeder); "Problem Solving and Thinking: Constructivist Research" (Schultz); "Assessment of Thoughts Processes with Mathematical Software" (Schwarz; Dreyfus); "Spontaneous Strategies for Visually Presented Linear Programming Problems" (Shama; Dreyfus); "Initial Development of Prospective Elementary Teachers' Conceptions of Mathematics Pedagogy" (Simon); "The Effects on Students' Problem Solving Behaviour of Long-term Teaching through a Problem Solving Approach" (Stacey); "The Relationship Between Mental Models in Mathematics and Science" (Stavy; Tirosh); "Pupils as Expert System Developers" (Stevenson; Noss); "Drawing--Computermodel--Figure Case Studies in Students' Use of Geometry-Software" (Strasser; Capponi); "Overcoming Overgeneralizations: the Case of Communitativity and Associativity" (Tirosh; Hadass; Movshovitz-Hadar); "First Steps in Generalization Processes in Algebra" (Ursini); "Translation Processes Solving Applied Linear Problems" (Van Streun); "Graphical Environment for the Construction of Function Concepts" (Wenzelburger); "The Potential for Mathematical Activity in Tiling: Constructing Abstract Units" (Wheatley; Reynolds); "The Equal Sign Goes Both Ways. How Mathematics Instruction Leads to the Development of a Common Misconception" (Wolters); "Learning in an Inquiry Mathematics Classroom" (Wood); "The Role of Peer Questioning During Class Discussion in Second Grade Mathematics" (Yackel); "The Effect of Graphic Representation: An Experiment Involving Algebraic Transformations" (Yerushalmy; Gafni); and "In What Ways Are Similar Figures Similar?" | [FULL TEXT]

Fu, Victoria R. (1992).  The Struggles of Democracy: An Agenda for Children and Families in the 1990's. 

Although multiple perspectives of democracy are reflected among the diverse people that make up the United States, two crucial elements of democracy are the creation of a public space for a continuous conversation promoting freedom of expression and tolerance, and the importance of compassion. Yet, one of the most basic conflicts in any system, be it a society, a family, or a classroom, is the tension between freedom and control over destructive behaviors. In the classroom, for example, control in the form of discipline should go beyond maintaining classroom order and managing behaviors; it should focus on the development of a compassionate, caring relationship with students and the creation of situations in which they can develop discipline within themselves. Public spaces that promote democratic conversation and self-discipline can be created based on the educational technique of zones of proximal development. Educational spaces can be created that allow for play, provide opportunities for collective problem solving and growth, and implement intersubjectivity, the coordination of different perspectives. Governmental policies should also be based on coordinating competing perspectives. Priorities for the 1990s should include support for the family, a reflective and caring pedagogy in schools, and an emphasis on human fellowship instead of race, class, or gender affiliation. | [FULL TEXT]