Situated Cognition (1998)

Page Contents

A      B      C      D      E      F      G      H      I      J      K      L      M      N      O      P      R      S      T      V      W      Y

A

Garrison, J. (1995). Deweyan Pragmatism and the Epistemology of Contemporary Social Constructivism. American Educational Research Journal v32 n4 p716-40 Win 1995. It is argued that an epistemology that supports theories of situated cognition and social constructivism can be found in the tradition of John Dewey's pragmatism. Dewey's pragmatic social behaviorism is a powerful theory of learning that stresses the roles of labor, tools, and language as activities of enculturation. (SLD) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0002-8312 EJ520955

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Barker, B., & M., E. (1995). Collegiate Aviation Review. September 1995. Alabama Available in microfiche only. EDRS Price - MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. This document contains three papers on aviation education. "Aviation/Aerospace Teacher Education Workshops: Program Development and Implementation" (Mavis F. Green) discusses practical issues in the development of an aviation/aerospace teacher education workshop designed to help elementary school teachers promote aviation to their students. "Globalization Strategies and the Prospects of Increased Competition in the International Airline Industry" (Scott E. Tarry, Lawrence J. Truitt) examines the potential impact of globalization strategies on competition in the international airline market. It concludes, from an analysis of four cases, that globalization strategies are reasonable for some airlines but may actually lessen the chance for real competition in the market even if ongoing government negotiations are successful. "Situated Learning: A Theory for Learning Situation Awareness" (Donna Forsyth Wilt, Philip Horton) examines the educational theory of situated learning (a theory based on the idea that learning takes place as interaction between a novice, an expert, and their social and physical environment) and its application in flight training. (MN) ED408491

Barnes, D. (1980). Situated Speech Strategies: Aspects of the Monitoring of Oracy. Educational Review v32 n2 p123-31 Jun 1980. Discussed are five aspects of testing the oral language production of young native speakers of English, the validity of such testing, the relationship of tests to everyday speech activities, and the irrelevance of models drawn from foreign language testing. (Author/KC) EJ233545

Barton, K. C. (1995). "My Mom Taught Me": The Situated Nature of Historical Understanding. Kentucky Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. This paper reports on a year-long qualitative study of two elementary classrooms in a suburban community near Cincinnati (Ohio). The classes were very homogeneous racially with no students of Hispanic, African-American, Asian, or Pacific Island descent in either class. Interviews, classroom observations and participation, and analysis of student's written assignments were conducted to examine the historical understanding students brought to school, the social context in which their thinking had developed, and the way their ideas affected their encounter with the content of the school curriculum. Students developed their understanding of the past primarily through interactions with relatives, and they used that understanding to construct a narrative of historical development which explained their own lives in the present. This study suggests that research and instruction should begin not with the content of the school curriculum or the nature of the historical discipline, but with the cultural context in which students' historical understanding develops. Contains 84 references. (EH) ED387404

Baynham, M. (1994). Reading As Situated Social Practice: What Counts As a Proper Reading in an Adult Numeracy Classroom? Prospect v10 n2 p18-26 Jul 1994. Explores what an emphasis on reading as social practice can tell us about the nature of reading. The article maintains that what counts as a "proper" reading of the text is highly constrained by the classroom context and that classrooms should be discourse sites where specific ways of reading are required and particular regimes of reading are in play. (16 references) (Author/CK) EJ529537

Berlak, A. C. (1996). Teaching Stories: Viewing a Cultural Diversity Course Through the Lens of Narrative.

Billett, S. (1994). Situated Learning: A Workplace Experience. Australian Journal of Adult and Community Education v34 n2 p112-30 Jul 1994. Evaluation of a workplace literacy program at a mining and processing plant involved interviews with 15 participants. Most used learning guides and valued computer-based learning but disliked videos. Observing and listening helped them move from knowing about to knowing how. (SK) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-1035-0462 EJ498529

Billett, S. (1996). Situated Learning: Bridging Sociocultural and Cognitive Theorising. Learning and Instruction v6 n3 p263-80 Sep 1996. Understanding situated learning requires bridging sociocultural and cognitive theories. The reconciliation of cognitive and sociocultural theories provides a basis for accounting for ways situations influence the coconstruction of knowledge. The proposed framework accounts for the complementarily of the two perspectives and shows how arrangements for learning can be evaluated. (SLD) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0959-4752 EJ535117

Black, R. S., & Schell, J. J. W. (1995). Learning within a Situated Cognition Framework: Implications for Adult Learning. Georgia Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. A qualitative study examined the uses to which 14 adult learners put their acquired knowledge from a graduate-level course in organizational behavior both in and outside classroom settings. The course goal was to empower learners to use organizational theory to improve the performance of vocational education personnel. The 14 learners, who ranged in age from 25-52, were required to complete a group simulation that was based on a situated cognition theory called CEO (Changing Educational Organizations) and that required learners to work in teams to design a model educational organization with the purpose of educating future workers who are critical thinkers/problem solvers. The final product of the simulation was a proposal submitted to a hypothetical state education agency for consideration as a demonstration site. On the basis of data collected through observations of the learners' performance, midcourse evaluations, and the final proposals, it was concluded that instructional strategies based on collaborative learning and creating an environment of trust gave learners opportunities to view their acquired knowledge from alternate viewpoints and that articulation of ideas further enhanced reflection on the meaning/application of information. (Contains 29 references. Selected comments from six learners are appended.) (MN) ED389939

Bogdan, R. (1976). National Policy and Situated Meaning: The Case of Head Start and the Handicapped. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 46 229-35. Discussed are the effects on local programs of the Economic Opportunity Act requiring Head Start programs to increase the number of handicapped children to 10 percent of those served. (DB) EJ138110

Bonk, C. J., & Others, A. (1996). Five Key Resources for an Electronic Community of Elementary Student Weather Forecasters. Journal of Computing in Childhood Education v7 n1-2 p93-118 1996. The Indiana Weather Project (IWP) investigated how the joint application of situated learning and constructivist theory might support elementary school students' understanding of weather systems. Results indicated significant cognitive gains during the multimedia weather unit. (SD) Report/ISSN: ISSN-1043-1055 EJ538115

Branch, R. C. M. (1995). A Conceptual Paradigm for Developing Learner-Centred Spaces. New York Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. A learner-centered approach is based on the need for educational environments which promote lifelong learning, enhance critical thinking, regard teachers and learners as both teachers and learners, and encourage personal empowerment. The conceptual paradigm suggested in this document is intended for learning-space creators interested in designs which move away from limiting, passive designs toward ones that facilitate active, multi-functional, inspirational, and situated educational experiences. Shifts in theory, philosophy, and epistemology are reflected differently according to variations in the: (1) learner; (2) content; (3) media; (4) teacher; (5) context; (6) time; and (7) space. (Contains 3 figures and 11 references.) (Author/BEW) ED395562

Brilliant-Mills, H. (1993). Becoming a Mathematician: Building a Situated Definition of Mathematics. Linguistics and Education v5 n3-4 p301-34 1993. Illustrates how, through the words selected, the patterns of interaction experienced, and the range of events constructed in a bilingual sixth-grade classroom, students and teachers defined what counted as mathematics, mathematical actions, and being mathematicians. The patterns of language use and the range of mathematical events within the first week of class and across the school year were examined. (MDM) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0898-5898 EJ485125

Brown, J. S., & Duguid, P. (1993). Stolen Knowledge. Educational Technology v33 n3 p10-15 Mar 1993. Discusses situated learning in the workplace and in the classroom. Topics addressed include operationalization versus legitimization of educational theories; instruction versus learning; explicit versus implicit instruction and knowledge; individual versus social context; systems narrowly construed versus systems broadly construed; and legitimate peripheral participation. (21 references) (LRW) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0013-1962 EJ461591

Brown, J. S., & Others, A. (1988). Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning. Technical Report. Massachusetts Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. Report/ISSN: BBN-R-6886 Contract no.: N00014-85-C-0026. This paper explores the relationship between the concept of cognitive apprenticeship and situated cognition and the social construction of knowledge. Cognitive apprenticeship is the enculturation of students into authentic practices through authentic activity and social interaction in a way similar to that which is evidentand evidently successfulin craft apprenticeship. Knowledge is not independent, but is fundamentally "situated," being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed. A theory of situated learning calls for learning and teaching methods which take this into account, in contrast to traditional methods which overlook the central, but restrictive, contribution made by the activities, context, and culture of schools to what is learned there. Two examples of mathematics teaching that exhibit important features of this approach are examined. (4 figures, 42 references) (EW) ED342357

Brown, J. S., & Others, A. (1989). Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning. Educational Researcher v18 n1 p32-42 Jan-Feb 1989. Conventional schooling too often ignores the influence of school culture on what is learned in school. Knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used; this is known as cognitive apprenticeship. Implications for understanding learning and teaching are discussed. (Author/BJV) UMI EJ386603

Bruce, B. C., & Rubin, A. (1993). Electronic Quills: A Situated Evaluation of Using Computers for Writing in Classrooms. Technology in Education Series. New Jersey Not available from EDRS. Document Not Available from EDRS. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 365 Broadway, Hillsdale, NJ 07642 (hardcover: ISBN-0-8058-0985-6, $59.95; paperback: ISBN-0-8058-1168-0, $22.50). Report/ISSN: ISBN-0-8058-1168-0. Considering questions relevant for teachers, students, researchers, and developers of educational innovations, this book centers on the words and experiences of the teachers and students who used QUILLa system containing both computer-based tools and environments for writing. The first chapter introduces general issues on which the analysis of QUILL is based. The second chapter discusses literacy development in relation to society, culture, learning, and social contexts. The third chapter focuses on QUILL as an innovation, including the software and the activities the software and its support system. The fourth chapter describes classrooms in the Alaskan cities, town, and villages that form the social context of the study. The fifth chapter discusses the complex and important idea of "purpose" in learning and describing alternate realizations of QUILL. The sixth chapter describes how QUILL's approach to fostering revision was realized. The seventh chapter presents the evolution of a community of teachers linked by an electronic communication network. The eighth chapter presents a theoretical framework for studying innovations and change. The ninth chapter discusses what was learned as a result of the evaluation of QUILL. (Contains 164 references.) (RS) ED363881

Bruce, B., & Peyton, J. J. K. (1990). A New Writing Environment and an Old Culture: A Situated Evaluation of Computer Networking to Teach Writing. Interactive Learning Environments v1 n3 p171-91 1990. Discussion of the implementation of educational innovations in classrooms focuses on the implementation of ENFI (Electronic Networks for Interaction) among a consortium of colleges and universities using computer networks for teaching writing to deaf and hearing students. Situated evaluations of educational innovations are discussed, and two case studies are presented. (Contains 28 references.) (LRW) Report/ISSN: ISSN-1049-4820 EJ479856

Bruce, B., & Peyton, J. J. K. (1992). A Situated Evaluation of Computer Networking To Teach Writing. Technical Report No. 565. Illinois Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. Contract no.: G0087-C1001-90. Noting that teachers and students who actually use an educational innovation in a classroom setting recreate it, this paper analyzes the implementation of ENFI (Electronic Networks for Interaction), an innovation that uses computers and local area networks in the teaching of writing. The paper presents ENFI's idealization in terms of its technological features and original visions for its use, and then its realizations. The paper identifies 16 distinct realizations of ENFI, and presents case studies of 2 of them in detail, relating each to characteristics of the setting in which it appeared. (Figures representing the conventional model of implementation, re-creation of an innovation in a social setting, two examples of ENFI computer screens, and six samples of student writing are included: 27 references are attached.) (RS) ED350615

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Chinn, C. A., & Others, A. (1993). Situated Actions during Reading Lessons: A Microanalysis of Oral Reading Error Episodes. American Educational Research Journal v30 n2 p361-92 Sum 1993. Results of a microanalysis of 3,003 oral reading errors by 116 second and third graders support the idea that the actions of students and teachers during error episodes are situated in social contexts, emerging in response to a dynamic interplay of factors that converge at particular moments. (SLD) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0002-8312 EJ466291

Chinn, C. A., & Others, A. (1993). Situated Actions during Reading Lessons: A Microanalysis of Oral Reading Error Episodes. Technical Report No. 582. Illinois Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. Contract no.: G0087-C1001-90: In Search for So ED395391 10 Burns McCoy Nancie ERIC 03/96 Expressionist Feminist Pedagogy and the Politics ED392045 11 Miller Janet L ERIC 1996 Teachers, Researchers, and Situated School Refor See full record 12 Ellsworth Elizabeth ERIC 1996 Situated Response-ability to Student Papers. See full record 13 Michelson Elana ERIC 1996 Beyond Galileo's Telescope: Situated Knowledge a See full record 14 Griffin Marlynn M ERIC 1996 Situated Cognition and Cognitive Style: Effects . 91. A microanalysis was completed of 3,003 oral reading error episodes during 72 small-group reading lessons involving 116 students in three second-grade and three third-grade classrooms. Factors were investigated that influenced: (1) oral reading errors made by readers; (2) the readers' reactions to their own errors; and (3) the teachers' feedback following errors. Characteristics of errors were influenced by such factors as the individual reader's comprehension ability, the difficulty of the text, and teacher rates of feedback. Readers' reactions were generally influenced by the same set of factors, together with the characteristics of the errors themselves. The patterns of teachers' feedback suggested that they were juggling several goals: maintaining pace, preserving meaning, and helping students who were having difficulty with decoding. One way in which teachers appeared to reach a compromise among these aims was to employ stereotyped feedback routines. Results support the idea that the actions of students and teachers during error episodes are situated in social contexts, emerging in response to a dynamic interplay of factors that converge at particular moments. (Six tables of data and a figure representing the network of relations among errors, reactions, and feedback are included; 61 references are attached.) (Author/RS) ED361654

Chiou, G.-F. (1995). Learning Rationales and Virtual Reality Technology in Education. Journal of Educational Technology Systems v23 n4 p327-36 1994-95. Defines and describes virtual reality technology and differentiates between virtual learning environment, learning material, and learning tools. Links learning rationales to virtual reality technology to pave conceptual foundations for application of virtual reality technology education. Constructivism, case-based learning, problem-based learning, and situated learning are proposed as conceptual foundations for an integrated learning model for virtual reality technology. (Author/JKP) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0047-2395 EJ507046

Choi, J.-I., & Hannafin, M. (1995). Situated Cognition and Learning Environments: Roles, Structures, and Implications for Design. Educational Technology Research and Development v43 n2 p53-69 1995. Examines the theoretical underpinnings of situation cognition and derives implications for the design of situated learning environments. Highlights include a discussion of the four basic issues of the conceptual framework of situation cognition; these include the role of content, context, facilitation, and assessment. A table summarizes the principles of each framework. (71 references) (Author/JMV) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-1042-1629 EJ508659

Civil, M. (1995). Everyday Mathematics, "Mathematicians' Mathematics," and School Mathematics: Can We (Should We) Bring These Three Cultures Together? Arizona Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. Contract no.: R117G10022. This paper is based on efforts to bring change to school mathematics by trying to develop mathematics classroom communities in predominantly minority classrooms. In these communities, students work towards doing mathematics by working on open-ended, investigative situations; sharing ideas and strategies; and jointly negotiating meanings. Students also need to develop mathematics from their backgrounds and experiences with everyday mathematics. This paper explores the tensions and compromises resulting from the different conceptions of program participants (school and university teacher-researchers, students, and parents) of what mathematics is and of what mathematics children should learn. The work discussed focuses on geometry in a fifth-grade class. An appendix contains written work by students on finding angles on pattern blocks. Contains 38 references. (Author/MKR) ED394788

Collins, A. (1988). Cognitive Apprenticeship and Instructional Technology. Technical Report. Massachusetts Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. Report/ISSN: BBN-R-6899 Contract no.: N00014-85-C-0026. In earlier times, practically everything was taught by apprenticeships. Schools are a recent invention that use many fewer teaching resources, but the computer enables us to go back to the resource-intensive mode of education, in a form called cognitive apprenticeship. This involves the use of modeling, coaching, reflecting on performance, and articulation methods of traditional apprenticeships, but with an emphasis on cognitive rather than physical skills. In the situated learning approach, knowledge and skills are taught in contexts that reflect how the knowledge will be used in real life situations. Technology thus enables us to realize apprenticeship learning environments that were either not possible or not cost effective before. (3 figures, 31 references) (EW) ED331465

Collins, A. (1994). Goal-Based Scenarios and the Problem of Situated Learning: A Commentary on Andersen Consulting's Design of Goal-Based Scenarios. Educational Technology v34 n9 p30-32 Nov-Dec 1994. Discusses principles of goal-based scenario (GBS) learning environments based on an examination of situated and unsituated knowledge. Topics addressed include flexibility; learning strategies; transfer of training; motivation; retention; and the use of GBS for professional development courses. (seven references) (LRW) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0013-1962 EJ493312

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Damarin, S. K. (1993). School and Situated Knowledge: Travel or Tourism? Educational Technology v33 n3 p27-32 Mar 1993. Examines issues related to situated cognition and learning, both in the classroom and in the world. Topics discussed include educational theories; the situated nature of knowledge; the perception of experts; and the role of technology in situated learning, including virtual reality, hypertext, and telecommunications. (26 references) (LRW) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0013-1962 EJ461594

De Corte, E., & Others, A. (1995). Word Problems: Game or Reality? Studies of Children's Beliefs about the Role of Real-World Knowledge in Mathematical Modeling. Belgium Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. Two related studies are reported about the (lack of) activation of real-world knowledge in elementary school students' understanding and solution of school arithmetic word problems. In the first study a set of word problems was collectively administered to 75 fifth-graders during a typical mathematics lesson. Half of the problems were standard items that could be unambiguously solved by applying the most obvious arithmetic operations with the given numbers, while the other half were problematic items for which the appropriate mathematical model was less obvious and indisputable. In the second study a similar problem set was individually administered to 30 fifth-graders in an attempt to collect more fine-grained data about the strength and awareness of conceptions and beliefs concerning the role of real-world knowledge in understanding and solving word problems. The results of both studies support the hypothesis that students tend to exclude common-sense knowledge and realistic considerations during the solution of arithmetic word problems. Furthermore, this tendency seems to be rooted in implicit but resistant beliefs about the role of real-world knowledge in mathematical modeling of school word problems. Contains 20 references. (Author/MKR) ED387345

Derry, S., & Others, A. (1995). Stimulating Statistical Thinking through Situated Simulations. Teaching of Psychology v22 n1 p51-57 Feb 1995. Maintains that literacy and informed decision making in an uncertain world require the ability to reason statistically. Describes a course designed to help students use statistical concepts as tools for social reasoning within simulations of real-world problems. Describes four types of instructional activities used. (CFR) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0098-6283 EJ507460

Dick, W. (1995). Instructional Design and Creativity: A Response to the Critics. Educational Technology v35 n4 p5-11 Jul-Aug 1995. Discusses creativity and instructional system design (ISD) in light of situated cognition, constructivism, and anchored instruction. Topics include historical background; ISD resulting in boring instruction, ISD evaluation criteria, the creativity criterion, quality, conditions for producing creative instruction, the linearity of the design process, and the compatibility of instructional design and constructivism. (LRW) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0013-1962 EJ507033

Diez, M. E. (1983). Situated Code Choice: An Empirical Examination of Two Types of Bargaining Interactions. Wisconsin Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. A study examined variation in code choice in the same speakers in two contrasting situationsinterorganizational and intraorganizational bargaining. Naturalistic interactions between teams of teacher's union bargaining agents, role-playing teachers, and school board members in the two settings were coded, using measures of structural and lexical complexity, solidarity, and formality of structure, as well as indices of personal reference. Discriminant analysis revealed that a set of structural and lexical variables accounted for significant differences in the structuring of the two types of interactions. The two situations were also found to differ in expressions of solidarity and in structural cues. (An extensive bibliography and tables of data are appended. (Author/FL) ED239316

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Ellsworth, E. (1996). Situated Response-ability to Student Papers.

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Farmer, J., A., J., & Others, A. (1992). Cognitive Apprenticeship: Implications for Continuing Professional Education. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education n55 p41-49 Fall 1992. Cognitive apprenticeship involves modeling of a task by an expert, learner performance and reflection with coaching, internalizing, and generalizing. It is effective because knowledge is created and made meaningful by the context in which it is acquired. (SK) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0195-2242 EJ456732

Farquhar, J. D., & Others, A. (1996). The Internet as a Tool for the Social Construction of Knowledge. Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Presentations at the 1996 National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (18th, Indianapolis, IN, 1996); see IR 017 960. Pennsylvania Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. The use of computers as a tool for learning has traditionally focused on individualized methods of instruction. Social interaction, however, is taking an increasingly important role in current learning theories and instruction prescriptions including computer-based delivery systems. Concurrent with these recommendations, global computer networks have emerged bringing new forms of computer-mediated social interaction. This paper discusses an ongoing case study that takes advantage of Internet technology to promote learning through socially-mediated interactions. Based upon theories of situated learning and cognitive apprenticeship, students engage in social dialog with experts through Internet technologies such as e-mail, listservs, synchronous chats, and the World Wide Web. In this case, the experts were two multimedia developers, one academic and one corporate. They fielded questions related to the use of technologies for training from the class. (Contains 13 references.) (Author/SWC) ED397793

Freedman, A., & Adam, C. (1996). Learning to Write Professionally: "Situated Learning" and the Transition from University to Professional Discourse. Journal of Business and Technical Communication v10 n4 p395-427 Oct 1996. Draws on theories of situated learning in a study that compared novices learning written genres in two different institutional settings within similar disciplines: university students in public administration, and graduate student interns in government agencies. Concludes when students move from the university to the workplace, they have to learn new genres and new ways to learn the genres. (PA) Report/ISSN: ISSN-1050-6519 EJ532085

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Gerhardt, U. (1975). The Emergence of "Situated Role" in a Bureaucratic Setting; Role Reduction and the Limits of Social Reform. Sociology of Work and Occupations 2 3 257-83. A study of vocational guidance in a Federal German agency shows discrepancies between performance and the formally legislated job description; welfare bureaucrats reduce formally stated role schemes in order to cope. The relational, normative, and functional aspects of reduction are discussed, and mechanisms of cognitive reconciliation of roles are explained. (Author/AJ) EJ123783

Ginsburg, G. P. (1981). Situated Action and the Management of Impression. Nevada Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Studies of the creation and management of impressions have advanced rapidly in recent years. However, relatively little empirical information has been provided about the processes by which impressions are created and managed in routine interaction and about the range of matters about which impressions are created. The excessive use of internal cognitive mechanisms leads research efforts away from a concern with the social and cultural contexts of action. Impression management research should capitalize on its theoretical emphasis on observable social processes, and should be expanded to include management of impressions about relationships, about fluctuating states of feeling, and about intention and willingness to interact. Situational analysis may provide a needed link to cultural considerations. (JAC) ED212940

Goodyear, P. (1995). Situated Action and Distributed Knowledge: A JITOL Perspective on EPSS. Innovations in Education and Training International v32 n1 p45-55 Feb 1995. Describes the JITOL (Just-in-Time Open Learning) project funded by the European Community and offers a JITOL perspective on electronic performance support as a technology for accessing distributed knowledge and promoting continuing professional development through computer-mediated communication. The learning cycle, prototype tools, and courseware are discussed. (53 references) (LRW) Report/ISSN: ISSN-1355-8005 EJ501753

Green, J., & Others, A. (1997). The Myth of the Objective Transcript: Transcribing as a Situated Act. TESOL Quarterly v31 n1 p172-76 Spr 1997. Explores the ethical issues involved in transcribing, and argues that transcribing is a situated act within a study embedded in a conceptual ecology of a discipline. Emphasizes that transcribing is a political act reflecting a discipline's conventions and a researcher's conceptualization of a phenomenon, research goals, and underlying theories. (22 references) (Author/CK) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0039-8322 EJ544520

Greeno, J. G. (1991). Number Sense as Situated Knowing in a Conceptual Domain. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education v22 n3 p170-218 May 1991 . This paper theoretically characterizes number sense as a set of cognitive capabilities for constructing and reasoning within mental models. This perspective provides support for viewing various aspects of number sense as features of students' general condition of knowing about numbers and magnitude, rather than as skills needing specific instruction. (Author/JJK) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0021-8251 EJ429211

Griffin, M. M. (1995). You Can't Get There from Here: Situated Learning, Transfer, and Map Skills. Contemporary Educational Psychology v20 n1 p65-87 Jan 1995. Comparative effectiveness of two instructional methods, one based on situated cognition and the other a traditional classroom-based presentation, were studied with 49 4th graders being instructed in map skills. Advantages of the situated cognition approach are demonstrated. (SLD) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0361-476X EJ502399

Griffin, M. M., & Griffin, B. B. W. (1996). Situated Cognition and Cognitive Style: Effects on Students' Learning as Measured by Conventional Tests and Performance Assessments. Journal of Experimental Education v64 n4 p293-308 Sum 1996. Impact of situated cognition on map skill retention and cognitive style effects on learning were studied with 45 fourth graders. Immediate postperformance assessment did not differ for experimental and conventional instruction groups, and conventional instruction groups performed better after delay. Cognitive style affected learning only in the immediate postinstruction period. (SLD) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0022-0973 EJ538571

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Harel, I., & Papert, S. (1990). Software Design as a Learning Environment. Interactive Learning Environments v1 n1 p1-32 Mar 1990. Describes the Instructional Software Design Project conducted in a LOGO-based learning environment in a Boston inner-city public school with fourth graders engaged in the design and production of educational software to teach fractions. Constructionist views of computers in education are discussed, and learning processes are examined. (Contains 58 references.) (LRW) Report/ISSN: ISSN-1049-4820 EJ479849

Harley, S. (1993). Situated Learning and Classroom Instruction. Educational Technology v33 n3 p46-51 Mar 1993. Discussion of situated learning focuses on classroom instruction. Topics addressed include individual uniqueness; a knowledge community, including the process of knowledge acquisition; situated instruction, including the role of the teacher; authentic activity, including teacher-student interaction; and implications for educational technology. (26 references) (LRW) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0013-1962 EJ461597

Hattie, J., & Others, A. (1996). Effects of Learning Skills Interventions on Student Learning: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research v66 n2 p99-136 Sum 1996. Through meta-analysis, 51 studies are examined in which interventions were aimed to enhance student learning by improving student use of either one or a combination of learning or study skills. Results obtained, through categorizing the interventions in hierarchical levels of structural complexity and as either near or far in terms of transfer, support the notion of situated cognition. (SLD) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0034-6543 EJ533504

Hawkins, J., & Honey, M. M. A. (1990). Challenges of Formative Testing: Conducting Situated Research in Classrooms. Technical Report No. 48. New York Available in microfiche only. EDRS Price - MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. Center for Children and Technology, Bank Street College of Education, 610 W. 112th Street, New York, NY 10025. It is argued that the three basic issues that have typically been the concern of formative evaluation (comprehensibility, appeal, and usefulness) tell us very little about the role that an instructional product can play in the ongoing environment of the classroom. The focus in this paper is on the field test, i.e., on research situated within the framework of existing classroom activity. Four issues considered central to situated research are discussed: (1) How is the instructional prototype interpreted by teachers? (2) How does the prototype function as part of the ongoing content curriculum that is both the backbone and blueprint for classroom goals and activities? (3) How does the prototype function within the organizational context of the classroom? and (4) Within the social context of the classroom, how is the prototype interpreted by students? Each of these questions is addressed using examples from formative research with two different prototype products: a computer-based set of interactive cognitive tools to support inquiry practices in science ("Inquire"), and a television series that uses a narrative format to introduce students to different arenas of scientific and mathematical inquiry ("The Second Voyage of the Mimi"). (8 references) (GL) ED319380

Hay, K. E. (1993). Legitimate Peripheral Participation, Instructionism, and Constructivism: Whose Situation Is It Anyway? Educational Technology v33 n3 p33-38 Mar 1993. Discusses legitimate peripheral participation and the idea of apprenticeship, in educational settings as well as in broader communities of practice. Highlights include the historical and situational aspects of learning; the contrast with constructivism; instructionism; the influence of computer technology; and empirical research. (11 references) (LRW) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0013-1962 EJ461595

Heaney, T. (1995). Learning To Control Democratically: Ethical Questions in Situated Adult Education. Illinois Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Lave and Wenger (1991) reject individualistic and psychologistic theories of learning in favor of a more broadly social and contextual approach. They observe that all learning is situated not only in space and time, but also inextricably in relation to social practice. Learning is "legitimate peripheral participation in a community of practice." Community of practice is a broad characterization that encompasses all social relations. Learning is an individual's ongoing negotiation with communities of practice, which ultimately gives definition to both self and that practice, whether it be in the context of training, literacy acquisition, community action, or graduate education. The "learning situated at the borders" metaphor describes a space and time of tremendous energy and potential. On the edge is where learning is most vital, most urgent, and creative. Adult education flourishes on the borders of countless communities, nurturing the seminal influence of newcomers, facilitating fuller participation in practice, and reinforcing shared decision making and control. When attention is given to the situation of learning, in the interaction between and among learners, their actions, and the world, ethical-normative issues become visible: the disempowering consequences of many training models, the anomalies of schooling as a vehicle for becoming a practitioner, and inconsistencies between practices of higher education and adult education. (YLB) ED397238

Heckman, P. E., & Weissglass, J. (1994). Contextualized Mathematics Instruction: Moving beyond Recent Proposals. For the Learning of Mathematics v14 n1 p29-33 Feb 1994. Discusses situated cognition and anchored instruction and makes recommendations for effecting change in mathematics curricula in the early school years based on the experience of the Educational and Community Change (ECC) Project, which is involved with reinventing education in a low-income, multilanguage area. (Contains 26 references.) (MKR) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0228-0671 EJ487128

Hedburg, J., & Alexander, S. (1994). Virtual Reality in Education: Defining Researchable Issues. Educational Media International v31 n4 p214-20 Dec 1994. Discusses situated learning and virtual reality, focusing on the pedagogical aspects of the technology and its importance in achieving a learning environment which challenges and supports effective learning. (AEF) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0952-3987 EJ499731

Hert, C. A. (1995). Information Retrieval as Situated Action. Proceedings of the ASIS Annual Meeting v32 p172-80 1995. Describes an inductive, qualitative study of 30 Syracuse University students that investigated the situated nature of action during interactions with an online public access catalog. Highlights include elements of situatedness, with examples; the mapping of individual searches; and users' goals and stopping behavior. (Author/LRW) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0160-0044 EJ513872

Hiemstra, A., & Others, A. (1996). An Audio Practical for a Distance Course on Expert Systems: A Situated Learning Perspective. Distance Education v17 n1 p181-95 1996. Discussion of learning materials and the acquisition of skills in the Dutch Open University focuses on the instructional design of an advanced course on expert systems that includes a practical element for acquiring required skills via CD-audio. Situated learning is also discussed. (LRW) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0158-7919 EJ526364

Hummel, H. G. K. (1993). Distance Education and Situated Learning: Paradox or Partnership? Educational Technology v33 n12 p11-22 Dec 1993. Discusses the possibilities of using situated learning theory in distance education and describes the instructional design of a course on soil and the environment offered at the Open University of the Netherlands that incorporates situated learning. The use of interactive videodisk is described. (Contains 49 references.) (LRW) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0013-1962 EJ474681

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Billett, S. (1994). Searching for Authenticity: A Socio-Cultural Perspective of Vocational Skill Development. Vocational Aspect of Education v46 n1 p3-16 1994. Learning situated in authentic settings such as the workplace can provide peer and expert models and a physical environment that enhance problem solving and transfer of learning. In such settings, learners can access the social and cultural aspects of vocational skills. (SK) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0305-7879 EJ484458

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Jacobson, W. (1996). Learning, Culture, and Learning Culture. Adult Education Quarterly v47 n1 p15-28 Fall 1996. Knowledge about a culture is best understood as situated cognition, that is, contexts are inseparable from cognitive processes. Learning about a culture is similar to learning about a practice; both require new ways of perceiving, interpreting, and communicating experience. Successful learning depends both on individual factors and on access to communities. (SK) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0741-7136 EJ535222

Jonassen, D. H., & Others, A. (1994). Learning with Media; Restructuring the Debate. Educational Technology, Research and Development v42 n2 p31-39 1994. Argues that the debate about media attributes versus instructional methods should be shifted from instruction- and media-centered to a learner-centered conception of learning. Learning with media should be explored on the macro level (where learning is situationally dependent) and on the micro level (where design should support, instead of manipulate, the learning process). (Contains 34 references.) (KRN) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-1042-1629 EJ488325

Jonassen, D., & Others, A. (1995). Constructivism and Computer-Mediated Communication in Distance Education. American Journal of Distance Education v9 n2 p7-26 1995. Describes the assumptions of a constructivist epistemology, contrasts them with objectivist assumptions, and describes instructional systems that can support constructive learning at a distance. Highlights include paradigm shifts in learning and instructional design theory; computer-mediated communication; computer-supported collaborative work; situated, case-based learning environments; and knowledge representation and construction. (60 references) (Author/LRW) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0892-3647 EJ512278

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Karila, K. (1995). Situated Learning in the Development of Kindergarten Student Teacher. Finland Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. This longitudinal study examined the development of expertise as a situational and contextual process among nine student teachers during their 3-year enrollment in a kindergarten training college in Finland. The research report is based on observations of student teaching, interviews with the student teachers, and student teacher diaries. Utilizing a situated learning framework, the data indicate that the social elements of the student teachers' training, such as personal interaction, shared attitudes toward children, and previous educational experience were more determinant of the student teachers' expertise development than physical elements of the training, such as the class schedules, classrooms, and organization of the course of study. The study concludes by arguing that teacher education needs to pay much more attention to the situational aspects of learning. (Contains 17 references.) (MDM) ED387260

Karila, K. (1996). Situated Learning in Kindergarten Teacher Education. "Childhood Education: International Perspectives," see PS 024 960. Finland Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Recent approaches in the study of learning describe it as an interactive process. Learning is seen to take place in the participation framework, between the person and his or her environment, rather than in the individual mind. This study examined the construction and development of expertise as a situational and contextual process, with the learning environment forming the arena and "partner" for individual learning and development. Subjects were nine student teachers in a college for kindergarten teaching in Finland. Data were collected from 1991 to 1994 in two areas: individual data and environmental data. Individual data were gathered through observations and video recordings of student teaching sessions and through student interviews and diaries. Environmental data were gathered from written documents (for example, curricula), supervisor evaluations and interviews, and observation. Preliminary findings suggested that the development process of expertise during teacher education can be described as a continuum of situational learning experiences. The situational experiences were constructed in the interaction process between the learner and his or her environment (which contained both physical and social dimensions). They formed a kind of path for the development process which was constructed according to the characteristics of the interaction partners and the nature of the interaction. The nature and development of this path seemed significant for the quality and content of learning. (Contains 16 references.) (EV) ED403073

Keedy, J. L., & Drmacich, D. (1994). The Collaborative Curriculum at the School without Walls: Empowering Students for Classroom Learning. Urban Review v26 n2 p121-35 Jun 1994. The approach of the School without Walls illustrates how collaborative curriculum can empower students and can address the problem that our schools do little to change power relations between students of elite families and those of minorities and low socioeconomic status. Data from a study of the school's student outcomes and a national study of school restructuring demonstrate usefulness of the curriculum. (SLD) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0042-0972 EJ490367

Kerka, S. (1997). Constructivism, Workplace Learning, and Vocational Education. ERIC Digest No. 181. Ohio Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Report/ISSN: EDO-CE-97-181 Contract no.: RR93002001. Constructivism suggests a way to restructure the learning environment to make the transfer of learning from school to work settings more effective. The theory rests on the notion that learners actively construct knowledge by integrating new information and experiences into what they have previously come to understand. Using a constructivist approach, teachers facilitate learning by encouraging active inquiry, guiding learners to question their tacit assumptions, and coaching them in the construction process. The concept of situated learning is embedded in constructivism. Research on how people learn in the workplace demonstrates that what is occurring is constructivist, situated learning, often through cognitive apprenticeship. The workplace has a number of strengths as a learning environment: authentic, goal-oriented activities; access to guidance; everyday engagement in problem solving; and intrinsic reinforcement. Limitations are construction of inappropriate knowledge; lack of sufficient or challenging authentic activities; and reluctance of experts to participate. Elements of constructivist, situated learning may be seen in recent vocational education developments such as tech prep, school to work, and integrated academic and vocational education. Vocational teachers should organize experiences that allow learners to develop their own knowledge and understanding in a learning environment that reproduces key aspects of communities of practice. (Contains 13 references.) (YLB) ED407573

Kieran, C. (1994). Doing and Seeing Things Differently: A 25-Year Retrospective of Mathematics Education Research on Learning. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education v25 n6 p583-607 Dec 1994. Contains two parts: (1) excerpts from interviews with Thomas Kieren and Thomas Romberg, and (2) a discussion of the evolution of views of mathematical learning and understanding, including constructivist interpretations, situated cognition, innovative perspectives on classroom research, and the inclusion of a social-interactionist Vygotskian orientation. (48 references) (MKR) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0021-8251 EJ498193

Kirshner, David, E., the, A. O. S. A. S. D. i. t. O. W. N. N. A. G. a. T. R. A. C. E. o., Mathematics, A. O. T. R. o. C. i. M. A. D. C. a. S. H. T. R. B. P. T. M. f., of, A. O. T. R. o. L. i. G. C. F. A. E. S. w. D. S. M. M. M. a. D., Postage., C. L. A. i. p. c. a. m. E. P.-M. P. P., Practitioners, O. R. T., & Ability, K. A. E. F. M. M. E. S. S. E. T. S. E. S. E. G. P. S. (1994). Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the North American Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (16th, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, November 5-8, 1994). Volume 1: Plenary Sessions, Technology Focus Groups, Discussion Groups and Research Papers, Oral Reports and Posters. This volume contains the full text of 2 plenary papers and 26 research reports. In addition, brief, usually one-page, reports are provided for 6 discussion groups, 10 technology focus groups, 7 symposiums, 7 oral presentations, and 17 position sessions. The two full plenary reports are: (1) "Problems of Reification: Representations and Mathematical Objects" (A. Sfard and P. W. Thompson); and (2) "Elements of a Semiotic Framework for Understanding Situated and Conceptual Learning" (J.A. Whitson). The twenty-six full research reports are: (3) "Factors in Learning Linear Algebra" (G. Harel); (4) "Articulations Between the Settings, Numeric, Algebraic and Graphic Related to the Differential Equations" (A. Hernandez and F. Hitt); (5) "Image Structures and Reification in Advanced Mathematical Thinking: The Concept of Basis" (L. Krussel); (6) "A Survey of Tertiary Students' Entry Level Understanding Of Mathematics Vocabulary" (L. D. Miller and B. White); (7) "Constructing the Derivative in First Semester Calculus" (B. Speiser and C. Walter); (8) "Visual Salience in Algebraic Transformations" (T. Awtry and D. Kirshner); (9) "Preparing Students for Algebra: The Role of Multiple Representations in Problem Solving" (M. E. Brenner and B. Moseley); (10) "Introducing Algebra With Programmable Calculators" (T. C. Avalos); (11) "Blind Calculators', 'Denotation' of Algebra Symbolic Expressions, and 'Write False' Interviews" (Jean-Philippe Drouhard, ED383533

Kumar, D. D. (1995). Intelligent Educational Systems for Anchored Instruction? TechTrends v40 n1 p33-35 Jan-Feb 1995. Explores the potential for using Intelligent Educational Systems (IES) for anchoring instruction in macro contexts in science education. Topics include anchored instruction; situated cognition; problem solving; cognitivism; interactive video environments; and examples of combining IES and anchored instruction. (LRW) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-8756-3894 EJ497977

Kumar, D., & Voldrich, J. J. F. (1994). Situated Cognition in Second Grade Science: Literature Books for Authentic Contexts. Journal of Elementary Science Education v6 n2 p1-10 Spr 1994. A report of how literature books can be used to create authentic contexts for teaching science at the second-grade level is presented. Points out that, instead of relying on expensive technologies, teachers could use carefully selected reading materials to provide students with meaningful contexts for science learning activities. (LZ) EJ503912

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LaDuc, L., & Goldrick-Jones, A. (1994). The Critical Eye, the Gendered Lens, and "Situated" InsightsFeminist Contributions to Professional Communication. Technical Communication Quarterly v3 n3 p245-56 Sum 1994. Describes how professional communicators are involved in situations which implicate questions of civic and ethical responsibility. Argues that feminist scholarship is a powerful means of understanding these situations. Discusses such theoretical frameworks and areas needing further research. (HB) Report/ISSN: ISSN-1057-2252 EJ489230

Laffey, J. (1995). Dynamism in Electronic Performance Support Systems. Performance Improvement Quarterly v8 n1 p31-46 1995. Describes a model for dynamic electronic performance support systems based on NNAble, a system developed by the training group at Apple Computer. Principles for designing dynamic performance support are discussed, including a systems approach, performer-centered design, awareness of situated cognition, organizational memory, and technology use. (LRW) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0898-5952 EJ497994

Lamb, R. (1996). Discords: Feminist Pedagogy in Music Education.

Lankard, B. A. (1995). New Ways of Learning in the Workplace. ERIC Digest No. 161. Ohio Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Report/ISSN: EDO-CE-95-161 Contract no.: RR93002001. New ways to learn at work draw upon workers' previous experiences, link concepts and practices, and encourage reflection and the transfer of knowledge from one situation to another. Action, situated, and incidental learning are three current approaches. Action learning is a systematic process through which individuals learn by doing. It has been adopted in the workplace as a viable approach to experiential management education and development and an important element of a training and development strategy. In the situated learning approach, knowledge and skills are taught in contexts that reflect how the knowledge will be used in real-life situations. Cognitive apprenticeship is one example of situated learning in which learners participate in a community of practice that is developed through activity and social interaction, in ways similar to that in craft apprenticeships. Incidental learning is unintentional and unexamined. The primary intent of the activity is to accomplish the task, not to learn. Each of these three ways of learning share common qualities and attributes. All engage learners in experiential learning, and all have a collective dimension. The gap between the learner and expert disappears. Conditions that enhance learning common to the three approaches are proactivity, critical reflection, and creativity. Since they involve experiential activity, these three ways of learning offer promise to organizations striving to achieve high performance. (Contains 11 references.) (YLB) ED385778

Li, T., & Jonassen, D. D. H. (1996). The Effect of Lesson Structures on Predication and Inference. Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Presentations at the 1996 National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (18th, Indianapolis, IN, 1996); see IR 017 960. Pennsylvania Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Theories of situated learning attempt to overcome the ill-structured nature of some domains of learning, and to use students' tendencies to construct knowledge representation on context and prior experience. Success comes when students apply abstract principles to real life. This study compares the effectiveness of two different lesson structures on helping students make inferences and predictions after studying a computer-based lesson of an interdepartmental information system. The two different lesson structures used were: case-based cognitive flexibility structure and concept-based lesson structure with examples. The two groups were randomly created with 381 sophomore business student volunteers. After the lesson, participants were given a multiple choice test with 10 questions on prediction and 9 questions on inference, randomly mixed. The time the students spent on the program was recorded. After finishing the lesson, students took the first part of the Necessary Arithmetic Operations Test (NAOT), 15 multiple choice questions that measure the general reasoning factor. Time on task and reasoning ability contributed significantly to students' performance making inferences and predictions. The students performed equally well in making predictions in different lesson structures, but in making inferences from given information, the students in case-based lessons performed better than those in concept-based lessons. Multiple perspectives and rich contextual information in case-based lesson structure enabled students to understand the inter-relationships and connect the information into better representations, which helped the inference-making process. (Contains 14 references and 7 tables.) (Author/SWC) ED397813

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Masingila, J. O. (1995). Examining Students' Perceptions of Their Everyday Mathematics Practice. New York Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Students need, through their school mathematical experiences, to build on and formalize mathematical knowledge gained in out-of-school situations. This study examined middle school students' perceptions of how they use mathematics outside the classroom in an attempt to learn more about students' everyday mathematics practice and to close the gap between doing mathematics in school and out of school. Middle school students (n=20) were interviewed before and after keeping a log for a week in which they recorded their everyday mathematics usage. Through the interviews and log sheets, it was found that the mathematics the middle school students perceived using outside the classroom could be classified as one of the six activities that Bishop (1988) has called the six fundamental mathematical activities (counting, locating, measuring, designing, playing, and explaining) but was also strongly influenced by their view of mathematics as school mathematics. Contains 23 references. (Author/MKR) ED387347

Maslin-Ostrowski, P., & Ackerman, R. R. H. (1997). A Case for Stories: Toward Further Understanding of Situated Knowledge and Practice. Florida Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. In contrast to case study, where participants learn vicariously through other peoples' cases, the case story approach invites people to learn through writing and telling about their own experiences as practitioners. This study of school leaders using case stories in university classrooms and in-service leadership academies focused on what is said and how it is said; how context influences story form and content; and how the case story serves as context of socially situated activity. Research for the study was carried out at 2 universities and 2 leadership academies over a year, with 75 administrators from elementary, middle, and high school settings, both public and private, and from urban and suburban communities participating. The case story research had five steps: (1) freewrite; (2) writing case stories; (3) telling, listening, and discussing case stories; (4) small group reflection; and (5) whole group reflection and conclusion. Results of the study indicated that the individual and collective quest to make sense of complex realities through case stories was critical to learning. Case stories attest to the strength of participants' personal perspectives, are organic rather than mechanistic, and finally, may serve important purposes integrating personal experience with administrative theory. (Contains 11 references.) (ND) ED408265

McCarthy, L. (1985). Situated Protocols: Studying a College Student's Writing in Classroom Contexts. Maryland Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. A study examined the writing experiences of three college students during their freshman and sophomore years to determine how students in a classroom setting determine the writing requirements of that discipline and for that teacher, and how they go about producing their writing assignments. The study used ethnographic observation and interviews, and analysis of composing protocols and student writing. The protocols were "situated" in that the researcher had observed the class for which the student was composing the paper, and what had taken place before and after the protocol draft. This knowledge was an asset as the researcher classified and counted one student's conscious concerns in the protocol/interview transcripts. The writing for the student's two courses did not appear to the researcher to be different, but the interviews and protocol data revealed that the student's chief writing concerns were different for each class; because the subject areas differed and were unfamiliar, the student did not realize that he had written papers in the required summary format before. In one instance the protocol findings contradicted the ethnographic data: the student felt he no longer needed to concentrate on getting a thesis statement and three subpoints, but on the subsequent paper he was not able to find his own essay structure. Analysis of successive drafts indicated how the composing aloud protocols served as the basis for the student's writing development. The situated composing-aloud protocols were a valuable tool for helping the researcher understand the student's writing experiences across disciplines and across time.(HTH) ED255928

McGinn, M. K. (1995). Teacher's Mathematics Inside and Outside Classrooms: A Case Study of Mathematical Activity across Contexts. Canada; British Columbia Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. This study was based on recent research findings that mathematical activity is fundamentally situated and distributed across physical and social contexts. Interviews, observations, and examination of artifacts were used to explore ways in which a 2nd-grade teacher with seven years of experience understood and used mathematics inside and outside her classroom. The connections she made between school and nonschool mathematics, the ways she taught and learned mathematics in the classroom, and the ways she used mathematics outside the classroom were investigated. Data analysis revealed the following list of categories of mathematical activities within and across contexts: flexibly modifying plans, making sense, using physical objects, stating solutions, measuring and calculating new measures, recognizing multiple solutions, checking one's work, and drawing connections. Contains 35 references. (MKR) ED385440

McLellan, H. (1993). Evaluation in a Situated Learning Environment. Educational Technology v33 n3 p39-45 Mar 1993. Examines evaluation in a situated learning context. Topics discussed include a model for evaluation in a computer learning environment; portfolios, including written, electronic, and video formats; summary statistics; diagnosis; reflection and self-assessment; story construction or scenario design; learners as designers of instruction; and diagnostic testing. (34 references) (LRW) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0013-1962 EJ461596

McLellan, H. (1996). "Being Digital": Implications for Education. Educational Technology v36 n6 p5-20 Nov-Dec 1996. Discusses emerging trends in education that are related to being digital. Highlights include the mind's processes and structures, including the cognitive spectrum, constructivism, and situated cognition; mass customization, including learning styles; context; our rapidly expanding knowledge base, including lifelong learning and just-in-time learning; and technology competence. (53 references) (LRW) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0013-1962 EJ534440

Michelson, E. (1996). Beyond Galileo's Telescope: Situated Knowledge and the Assessment of Experiential Learning. Adult Education Quarterly v46 n4 p185-96 Sum 1996. Approaches to assessment of prior experiential learning (APEL) sit within Enlightenment theories of knowledge. Alternative epistemologies offered by postmodernist, feminist, and antiracist theories suggest a different basis for assessment: situated knowledge. APEL can give visibility to outsider knowledge and alter the relationship between experiential learning and academic authority. (SK) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0741-7136 EJ530247

Miller, J. L. (1996). Teachers, Researchers, and Situated School Reform: Circulations of Power.

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Okamoto, T., & Others, A. (1994). The Architecture of an Intelligent Multimedia CAL Software with the Expert System for Environment Education. Educational Technology Research v17 n1-2 p13-22 Dec 1994. Describes multimedia CAL software with CAD/expert systems capabilities designed for use in environmental education for fourth- through sixth-grade children. The software is based on concepts of situated learning and knowledge constructivism, provides a learning environment that supports a student's decision making, and provides online feedback. (Author/JKP) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0387-7434 EJ510402

Orey, M. A., & Nelson, W. W. A. (1994). Situated Learning and the Limits of Applying the Results of These Data to the Theories of Cognitive Apprenticeships. Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Presentations at the 1994 National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (16th, Nashville, TN, February 16-20, 1994); see IR 016 784. Georgia Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. The characteristics and elements of situated learning are described, along with some approaches that use this perspective. Situated cognition proposes a radically different explanation of learning that conceives of it largely as a social phenomenon rather than a process occurring within the mind of the individual. Situated learning requires essential actors and participatory relationships beyond those common to current educational practices. Situated cognition suggests that knowledge is a relation between an individual and a social or physical situation. A growing body of evidence suggests that knowledge acquired in specific situations is more powerful and useful than so-called general knowledge. One of the most widely discussed features of situated cognition is the notion of cognitive apprenticeships as a way for learners to become participants in a community of practice. Implementing cognitive apprenticeships or integrating situated learning in any aspect will not be easy. It will require redefinition of instruction and the development of tools and environments that support communication and collaboration among learners and experts. (Contains 30 references.) (SLD) ED373746

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Picard, C. L. (1993). Intentionality and Instructional Design: Revisiting Key Issues and Their Implications. Educational Technology v33 n12 p23-28 Dec 1993. Examines the implications of the term "goal directed," or "intentional behavior," in the context of instructional design strategies. Models developed by Piaget and Vygotsky regarding development and learning are reviewed; intentionality and situated activities are discussed and examples given; and principles regarding intentionality are suggested. (Contains 22 references.) (LRW) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0013-1962 EJ474682

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Anderson, J. R., & Others, A. (1996). Situated Learning and Education. Educational Researcher v25 n4 p5-11 May 1996. Reviews the following claims of situated learning: action is grounded in the concrete situation in which it occurs; knowledge does not transfer between tasks; training by abstraction is of little use; and instruction must be done in complex, social environments. The authors, focusing on mathematics education, critically evaluate each claim and discuss some educational implications. (GR) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0013-189X EJ528724

Relan, A., & Smith, W. W. C. (1996). Learning from Hypermedia: A Study of Situated versus Endemic Learning Strategies. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia v5 n1 p3-21 1996. Reports on a study that examined the response of adult learners, 11 undergraduates, to instructional content presented as hypermedia. Most learners adapted comfortably to the medium, both by imposing "old" learning techniques on it and using new "situated" ones suggested on the tutorial. Their self-evaluation assessed both academic and social perspectives. Contains 16 references and 6 tables. (BEW) Report/ISSN: ISSN-1055-8896 EJ526261

Resnick, L. (1994). Performance Puzzles: Issues in Measuring Capabilities and Certifying Accomplishments. Project 2.3, Complex Performance Assessments. California Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. Contract no.: R117G10027. This article explores issues involved in using assessments as a means of defining standards and encouraging efforts to meet them. It compares the European examination system with the present American testing system. It also considers issues that must be faced in defining learning domains in ways that do not encourage narrowly focused training on specific assessment items. Performance assessment is designed for a different set of social functions than is traditional American testing, and is grounded in different epistemological assumptions. A great deal of practical work is going into the design of new assessments for the new needs of education, but there is relatively little reflection on the theoretical aspects of the development of new assessments. Performance assessment cannot develop on solid ground without more explicit theories of situated cognition than are now available. A cognitive theory of accomplishment is needed for new forms of assessment. (SLD) ED379320

Richey, R. C. (1994). Design 2000: Theory-Based Design Models of the Future. Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Presentations at the 1994 National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (16th, Nashville, TN, February 16-20, 1994); see IR 016 784. Michigan Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. The influence of theory on instructional-design models of the future is explored on the basis of the theoretical developments of today. Anticipated model changes are expected to result from disparate theoretical thinking in areas such as chaos theory, constructivism, situated learning, cognitive-learning theory, and general systems theory. Instructional-system design models (ISD) are likely to continue to be a driving force among practitioners for the next decade. The typical pattern of use for such models is linear, but support for nonlinear models is appearing. The constructivist influence is permeating much thinking on instructional design and will surely be part of the newer, expanded needs-assessment orientation. Design models of the future are likely to incorporate more formative and summative evaluation. These enhancements of the typical macrodesign model will be complemented by changes in micromodels that guide the selection and sequencing of instructional strategies. Two key issues will be the nature of learner control in design models of the future and in the transfer of training strategies. The diversity of approaches in the future offers new challenges for practitioners and researchers alike. (Contains 27 references.) (SLD) ED373752

Robinson, N. M., & Magliocca, L. L. A. (1991). Identifying and Modeling the Problem Situated Expertise of the Regular Class Teacher in the Instruction of At-Risk and Mildly Handicapped Students. Ohio Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. The paper examines an expert systems methodology for identifying and modeling the problem-situated expertise of the regular class teacher, with the objective of determining how regular class teachers who demonstate consistent success or expertise mediate instructional problems. The study, with six identified expert primary-level teachers, analyzed 12 case studies using an heuristic classification model. Although the teachers did not apply the same sets of strategies, they did apply similar classes of strategies, including viewing the classroom as a social system and using reciprocal interactions to teach various roles and responsibilities. Among major findings was that the expert teachers shared the expectation that every student entering their classroom would learn. The teachers elicited student responses to guide students further and made effective learning strategies explicit to their students. Ten solution classes were identified, including building the learner's sense of competence, increasing the student's motivation to learn, and increasing active participation. The expert training systems methodology was seen to provide a preliminary training materials prototype appropriate for use with regular educators. Includes 45 references. (DB) ED332455

Ross-Gordon, J. M., & Dowling, W. W. D. (1995). Adult Learning in the Context of African-American Women's Voluntary Organizations. International Journal of Lifelong Education v14 n4 p306-19 Jul-Aug 1995. Twenty-eight African American women involved in voluntary organizations reported some systematic nonformal education, but more frequent and more valuable were informal, incidental learning opportunities, resulting in changed ability to interact with others, growing self-confidence, and greater connection to group and community. They generally preferred this learning to formal education. (SK) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0260-1370 EJ507794

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Schaafsma, D. (1996). Things We Cannot Say: "Writing for Your Life" and Stories in English Education.

Schell, J. W., & Rojewski, J. J. W. (1993). Toward Vocational Thoughtfulness: An Emerging Program of Research. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education v30 n2 p44-64 Win 1993. Defines dimensions of vocational thoughtfulness: transfer of learning, situated learning, and learning from experts who shape culture. Outlines potential areas of inquiryempirical, interpretive, and critical. (SK) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0022-1864 EJ460821

Shaw, R. E., & Others, A. (1997). An Ecological Approach to the On-Line Assessment of Problem-Solving Paths: Principles and Applications. Instructional Science v25 n2 p151-66 Mar 1997. Proposes a theoretical framework for designing online-situated assessment tools for multimedia instructional systems. Uses a graphic method based on ecological psychology to monitor student performance through a learning activity. Explores the method's feasibility in case studies describing instructional systems teaching critical-thinking and problem-solving skills, principles of hemodynamic monitoring and treatment, and orthodontic treatment. (PEN) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0020-4277 EJ546248

Shea, D. P. (1993). Situated Discourse: The Sociocultural Context of Conversation in a Second Language. "Pragmatics and Language Learning," Volume 4. Selected papers presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Conference on Pragmatics and Language Learning (6th, Urbana, IL, April 2-4, 1992); see FL 023 905. Japan Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. An analysis of sociocultural aspects of a dinner conversation is presented, part of a larger study of the pragmatics of second language discourse. Salient features of the discourse are examined in terms of implicit frames of reference about social membership that are brought into play in interaction. Primary data come from the conversation between an advanced Japanese non-native speaker of English (NNS) and two American colleagues, and secondary data from open-ended ethnographic interviews with the NNS. The analysis considers sociopragmatic features of discourse, such as solidarity, intimacy, distance, directness and indirectness, and cultural frames of reference, and how they influence the construction of a conversational participant structure, understood primarily in terms of negotiated solidarity. While the data suggest that differences in discourse strategies between the American and Japanese participants exist, a heteroglossic rather than consensual understanding of the sociocultural context of cross-cultural communication is suggested. (Author/MSE) ED396550

Shedletsky, L. (1993). Minding Computer-Mediated Communication: CMC as Experiential Learning. Educational Technology v33 n12 p5-10 Dec 1993. Discussion of the growing use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) in education focuses on an intrapersonal communication model based on the cognitive experience of the individual. Four types of experiential learning that can be applied to CMC are explained: (1) response learning; (2) situation learning; (3) transsituation learning; and (4) transcendent learning. (Contains 24 references.) (LRW) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0013-1962 EJ474680

Sierpinska, A. (1995). Mathematics: "In Context," "Pure," or "with Applications"? For the Learning of Mathematics v15 n1 p2-15 Feb 1995. Argues that a curriculum based on mathematics such as it arises in solving everyday problems is unrealistic; the problem of transfer cannot be resolved by claiming that it should not exist in the first place. (49 references) (MKR) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0228-0671 EJ505586

Silva, M., & Breuleux, A. (1994). The Use of Participatory Design in the Implementation of Internet-Based Collaborative Learning Activities in K-12 Classrooms. Interpersonal Computing and Technology Journal v2 n3 p99-128 Jul 1994. Discusses research on the process of introducing telecommunication technology in K-12 classrooms. To ensure parent and teacher involvement in Internet-based collaborative learning projects, a participatory design approach is examined that allows teachers to monitor and influence project design. This approach is selected because of its effectiveness in industry. (Contains 80 references.) (Author/KRN) Report/ISSN: ISSN-1064-4326 EJ488303

Silver, E. A. (1990). Treating Estimation and Mental Computation as Situated Mathematical Processes. Pennsylvania Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. This paper discusses the central thesis that new research on estimation and mental computation will benefit from more focused attention on the situations in which they are used. In the first section of the paper, a brief discussion of cognitive theory, with special attention to the emerging notion of situated cognition is presented. Three sources of expertise as contextual are proposed: social theories about language and the development of thought; anthropology and the study of situated cognition; and the history and philosophy of scientific domains. In the second section, "Mathematics and Sense Making", a review of work on problem solving that dealt with the importance of context, especially with respect to the interpretation of problem solutions is presented. Situational factors that influence children's problem-solving performance are described though research findings on division with remainders in problem-solving situations. Finally, a situated perspective on further research regarding serious consideraiton of mental computation and estimation as situated mathematical processes is discussed. ED342645

Silver, E. A., & Burkett, M. M. L. (1994). The Posing of Division Problems by Preservice Elementary School Teachers: Conceptual Knowledge and Contextual Connections. Pennsylvania Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. Contract no.: NSF-MDR-8850580. Previous research has suggested that many elementary school teachers have a firmer understanding of addition and subtraction concepts than they have of more complex topics in elementary mathematics, such as division. In this study, (n=24) prospective elementary teachers' understanding of aspects of division involving remainders was explored by examining the problems they posed. The teachers' responses revealed a clear preference for posing problems associated with real world contexts, suggesting that the term "story problem" had that particular meaning for this group. Although the vast majority of problems were situated in contexts, the problems and solutions frequently did not represent a solid connection between the mathematical and situational aspects of the problem. About two-thirds of the subjects spontaneously posed problems and proposed solutions that reflected their understanding of the relationship between the given computation and at least one member of its family of associated computations. For 20 posed problems, almost all of which were partitive division situations, subjects failed to specify the need for equal-sized groups or the number of items per group in the division situation being posed. The findings were that, although some aspects of division, such as its connection to different types of problem situations and its relationship to multiplication, were fairly well understood by most of the subjects in this study, limited or flawed understanding was also noted in many different areas. The document contains examples of the question sheets used in the study and examples of posed problems. (Contains 14 references.) (MKR) ED381348

Squires, D., & McDougall, A. (1996). Software Evaluation: A Situated Approach. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning v12 n3 p146-61 Sep 1996. Predictive evaluation of educational software is problematic because such instructional materials should be evaluated only setting by setting. A situated approach suggests that appropriate evaluation can be performed by considering interactions between the three principal actors in the development and use of the software: teacher, designer, and student. The approach is illustrated by evaluating a recent CD-ROM. (PEN) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0266-4909 EJ529774

Stinson, J. E. (1990). Integrated Contextual Learning: Situated Learning in the Business Profession. Ohio Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.: In Search for So ED395391 10 Burns McCoy Nancie ERIC 03/96 Expressionist Feminist Pedagogy and the Politics ED392045 11 Miller Janet L ERIC 1996 Teachers, Researchers, and Situated School Refor See full record 12 Ellsworth Elizabeth ERIC 1996 Situated Response-ability to Student Papers. See full record 13 Michelson Elana ERIC 1996 Beyond Galileo's Telescope: Situated Knowledge a See full record 14 Griffin Marlynn M ERIC 1996 Situated Cognition and Cognitive Style: Effects . 122. The Integrated Contextual Learning (ICL) alternative learning methodology is examined as to the impact it can have on the preparation of future managers. The state of business education is reviewed noting criticism that business schools are too theoretical and out of touch with business realities. The ICL is a methodology derivative of Reiterative Problem-Based Learning and follows concepts of cognitive apprenticeship. Students are presented with an ill-structured problem situation and are assigned to set the problem and decide on appropriate action. Students formulate the problem collectively, engage in research and self-directed study individually, address the problem again collectively, and continue these iterations as appropriate. The faculty member selects appropriate learning problem-situations and acts as learning manager, coach, and model. A sample learning problem is offered with a summary of group learning activities during ICL implementation at Ohio University. Additionally, the report shows how ICL develops desirable managerial capabilities and discusses the difficulties of incorporating ICL into business schools. Contains six references. (GLR) ED319330

Streibel, M. J. (1989). Instructional Plans and Situated Learning: The Challenge of Suchman's Theory of Situated Action for Instructional Designers and Instructional Systems. Proceedings of Selected Research Papers presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (Dallas, TX, February 1-5, 1989). For the complete proceedings, see IR 013 865. Wisconsin Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. This paper discusses the implications of Lucy Suchman's conclusion that a theory of situated actioni.e., the actual sense that specific users make out of specific Xeroxing eventsis truer to the lived experience of Xerox users than a cognitive account of the user's planse.g., the hierarchy of subprocedures for how Xerox machines should be used. It is argued that this distinction poses a challenge for cognitively based instructional design because it leads to two questions: whether instructional plans should be designed into instructional systems in order to control instructional interactions when the users of such systems learn in a situated-action manner and not in a plan-based manner, and whether any instructional or learning theory should be used to guide the actions of teachers or learners. Suchman's ideas about plans and situated actions, as well as the implications of these ideas for the design and use of instructional systems, are discussed under the following subheadings: plans and instructional systems; the problematic of plans and instructional practice; plans and situated actions; and plans and situated learning. A brief analysis of the work of John Seely Brown, who is a colleague of Suchman at the Xerox Palo Alto (California) Research Center and one of the founders of the field of intelligent tutoring systems, is then presented. The paper concludes with a discussion of Brown's contention that situated learning is a more accurate account of the phenomena of how people actually learn in the presence of intelligent tutoring systems than the cognitive theory of plans. Appended are 10 graphic representations of various topics discussed in the paper, e.g., the cognitivist paradigm, instructional systems, and aspects of cognition. (27 references) (CGD) ED308844

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Tracy, K., & Baratz, S. (1993). Intellectual Discussion in the Academy as Situated Discourse. Communication Monographs v60 n4 p300-20 Dec 1993. Provides an in-depth examination of the multiple, often conflicting concerns, that arose as an academic group "did" intellectual discussion. Offers a model of how intellectual discussants generally make attributions about each other. Uses results from the case study to critique context-general communicative theories (attribution, politeness, multiple goals). (SR) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0363-7751 EJ474075

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Washington, M. F. (1995). Real Life Math Mysteries: A Kids' Answer to the Question, "What Will We Ever Use This For?" Texas Not available from EDRS. Document Not Available from EDRS. Prufrock Press, P.O. Box 8813, Waco, TX 76714-8813. Report/ISSN: ISBN-1-882664-14-0. This book contains real-life mathematics problems and is designed to conform to the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics' (NCTM) goals as outlined in the NCTM Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. The problems come from each person's day-to-day experiences in their careers. Persons from various careers represented are as follows: banker, landscaper, veterinarian, administrator, pizza restaurant manager, lawyer, farmer, Taekwon-do instructor, auto repair shop owner, travel agent, truck driver, horse stable owner, contractor, police detective, disc jockey, zoo keeper, electrician, fireman, fitness program director, newspaper editor, engineer, sporting goods specialist, recycling representative, archeologist, nurse, airplane pilot, mayor, and writer. A solution key for the problems is included. (MKR) ED381370

Wilson, A. L. (1993). The Promise of Situated Cognition. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education n57 p71-79 Spr 1993. Situated cognition, the concept that learning is integrally situated in everyday activity, enables more accurate understanding of adult learning. Authentic activity, involving situations requiring actual rather than simulated cognitive processes, may be a better basis for adult education. (SK) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0195-2242 EJ458848

Wilson, B. G. (1995). Situated Instructional Design: Blurring the Distinctions between Theory and Practice, Design and Implementation, Curriculum and Instruction. Proceedings of the 1995 Annual National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT), (17th, Anaheim, CA, 1995); see IR 017 139. Colorado Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. A view of situated instructional development (ID) is presented which incorporates a constructivist, situated view of learning and expertise, while at the same time viewing the ID process itself in situated terms. The purposes of this paper are to offer several reflections about the relationship between design and implementation of learning environments and instructional products, and to offer a number of specific recommendations for practicing ID from a situated/constructivist perspective. Several points of reflection are offered pertaining to the practice of ID as it relates to real-world contexts: (1) implementation and design are ultimately inseparable; (2) questions of curriculum and value are central; (3) deciding upon a design solution and making decisions within that framework is a highly situated activity; (4) instruction should support learners as they become efficient in procedural performance and deliberate in their self-reflection and understanding; and (5) successful programs must seek to make complex performance do-able while avoiding the pitfalls of simplistic proceduralization. A workable ID model must combine the two critical factors of effective, creative design and efficient management and control. Situated ID mixes up the traditional roles of subject matter expert, designer, and teacher and student in the design process. Guidelines for doing situated/constructivist ID are presented in terms of: general methodology; needs assessment; goal/task analyses; instructional development strategy; media selection; and student assessment. In conclusion, the pros and cons of the situated model are outlined. One table and one figure illustrate the concepts. (Contains 36 references.) (MAS) ED383346

Winn, W. (1993). Instructional Design and Situated Learning: Paradox or Partnership? Educational Technology v33 n3 p16-21 Mar 1993. Discusses the relationship between instructional design and situated learning. The transfer of knowledge and skills to a variety of settings is considered; and ways in which instructional design can contribute to the goals of situated learning are described, including planning learning experiences that are situated in the real world. (24 references) (LRW) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-0013-1962 EJ461592

Wood, D. (1995). Theory, Training and Technology: Part I. Education and Training v37 n1 p12-16 1995. Outlines learning theories and their implications for the role of educational technology: (1) post-Skinner neobehaviorism; (2) Piaget's constructivism; (3) Vygotsky's social constructivism; and (4) situated cognition. (SK) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0040-0912 EJ500701

Wood, D. (1995). Theory, Training and Technology: Part II. Education and Training v37 n2 p9-15 1995. Examples of two theory-based computerized learning systemsSmithtown and Sherlockshow that most success arises when learning tasks are well structured. Such systems teach procedural rather than conceptual knowledge and support individualized learning better than group learning. (SK) Report/ISSN: ISSN-0040-0912 EJ504489

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Young, M. (1995). Assessment of Situated Learning Using Computer Environments. Journal of Science Education and Technology v4 n1 p89-96 Mar 1995. Suggests that, based on a theory of situated learning, assessment must emphasize process as much as product. Several assessment examples are given, including a computer-based planning assistant for a mathematics and science video, suggestions for computer-based portfolio assessment, and speculations about embedded assessment of virtual situations. (LZ) Report/ISSN: ISSN-1059-0145 EJ504060

Young, M. F. (1993). Instructional Design for Situated Learning. Educational Technology, Research and Development v41 n1 p43-58 1993. Discusses the design of situated learning and the ecological psychology of situated cognition. Topics addressed include the teacher's role; teacher training; anchored instruction; transfer skills; the meaning of learning; apprenticeships; and the Jasper Series, a macrocontext designed to investigate the issues of situated learning. (46 references) (LRW) UMI Report/ISSN: ISSN-1042-1629 EJ462809

Young, M. F., & Kulikowich, J. J. M. (1992). Anchored Instruction and Anchored Assessment: An Ecological Approach to Measuring Situated Learning. Connecticut Available in paper copy and microfiche. EDRS Price - MF01/PC02 Plus Postage. Anchored instruction and anchored assessment are described and illustrated through a mathematics problem from the Jasper problem solving series developed at Vanderbilt University in Nashville (Tennessee). Anchored instruction is instruction situated in a context complex enough to provide meaning and reasons for why information is useful. Problems anchored in a complex context require anchored assessment, assessment that is a seamless, to the extent possible, part of the instruction process. A prototype assessment approach, the Jasper Planning Assistant (JPA), is described. Transfer from a single mathematical problem solving activity to reading comprehension of passages with analogous content, and the absence of transfer across content domains demonstrated in a study of 121 middle school students, is described. It is speculated that cross-domain transfer will require anchored instruction that provides a generator set of situations across which students could detect invariants that specify when higher order thinking skills would be useful. Assessment techniques for anchored instruction and situated learning must adapt to accommodate the non-linear topological dynamics that are seen when complex realistic problem solving is described as a perception-action cycle. Eight figures illustrate the discussion. Three appendixes provide sample Jasper verbal protocol and analysis, and two samples of JPA output. Thirty-eight references are included. (SLD) ED354269

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